Doolittle's Raid

On April 18, 1942, the course of World War II changed forever when James Doolittle led 16 U.S. Army bombers in a secret raid of mainland Japan. While the attack itself was relatively inconsequential and minimal damage was inflicted, Doolittle’s daring proved an enormous boost for American morale and helped undermine the seemingly unstoppable Japanese war machine.

Only four months after Pearl Harbor, spirits in the United States were at an all-time low and President Franklin Roosevelt was desperate to answer the enemy’s bold assault. Unfortunately, Japan’s naval dominance made such a response impossible and the U.S. lacked bombers capable of such a long air journey. That’s when American ingenuity took over.

Doolittle, already an aviating legend for pioneering instrument flying, launched his squadron from an aircraft carrier in the Pacific, marking the first such deployment in history. The Japanese, thinking their homeland was immune from attack, were caught completely by surprise. All 16 of Doolittle’s B-25 bombers dropped their limited payloads and emerged unscathed, although 15 of the planes ran out of fuel before reaching their landing zones in China, forcing their crew to either crash land or bail out over the Chinese coast, while the sixteenth had to land in Russia. Of the 80 crewmen, one died bailing out, two died swimming to shore, and eight were captured, three of which were later executed and one of which died of starvation.

Having lost all 16 planes and a portion of his crew, Doolittle considered the attack a failure and feared court martial. Much to his surprise, he and his men were greeted as heroes upon returning home. The raid rose morale for America and struck a severe psychological blow to the Japanese, prompting several strategic mistakes that eventually led to their demise at the pivotal Battle of Midway.

Events Leading Up to World War II

On August 31, 1939, despite threats of British and French intervention, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler signed an order to attack Poland, and German forces moved to the frontier. It was a move that would change the world.

Nazi S.S. troops wearing Polish uniforms staged a phony invasion of Germany, damaging several minor installations on the German side of the border. They also left behind a handful of dead German prisoners in Polish uniforms to serve as further evidence of the alleged Polish attack, which Nazi propagandists publicized as an unforgivable act of aggression.

At dawn the next morning, 58 German army divisions invaded Poland in the now-famous "blitzkrieg" style. Hitler expected appeasement from Britain and France--the same nations that had given Czechoslovakia away to German conquest in 1938 with their signing of the Munich Pact. However, neither country would allow Hitler's violation of Europe's borders, and Germany was presented with an ultimatum: Withdraw by September third or face war.

At 11:15 a.m. on September 3, a few minutes after the expiration of the British ultimatum, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was heard on national radio to announce solemnly that Britain was at war with Germany. Australia, New Zealand, and India immediately followed suit. Later that afternoon, the French ultimatum expired, and at 5:00 p.m. France declared war on Germany. The era of World War II began.

The Hydrogen Bomb and the Cold War

May 20th, 1956 was a memorable day in terms of records and in terms of the snowball effect. This was the day when the United States made history by performing the first ever airborne test of a hydrogen bomb.

The bomb was dropped from a B-52 bomber at more than 50,000 feet above Bikini Atoll, and detonated at 15,000 feet. The blast was bigger than any of the previously detonated hydrogen bombs, as the U.S. had been improving them since the end of the Second World War. It was unknown at the time if nuclear weapons were a practical addition to an air arsenal, but the U.S. soon found out that they were.

Since the test was kept highly classified, the world had no idea what happened. After the Soviet Union learned of the test, the race was on to see who could develop the most powerful and ultimately most threatening hydrogen bomb. This is widely considered to have been the catalyst to the escalation of the Cold War.

It was this particular test that eventually led to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963, when the world started to wonder about the effects of testing such a powerful weapon with such long-lasting effects on the environment, human and animal alike. Once the Cold War was winding down, the U.S., the Soviet Union, and Great Britain all signed the treaty to ensure that responsible measures were being taken with the tests, and that the environment would no more suffer from the gross detrimental effects of the open-air and underwater testing.

Unresolved Conflicts and the First World War

In the spring of 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece, encouraged by Russia, aligned with the objective of taking control of some or all of the lands still occupied by the Ottoman Empire in Europe. On October 8, 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey; Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece followed suit on October 17. The Ottoman army was quickly and decisively defeated, as the Balkan forces drove the Turks from almost all of their territory in southeastern Europe over the course of a month.

The great powers of Europe - Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia - scrambled to exert control over the region in the wake of Turkey’s withdrawal, and a congress was convened with representatives of the belligerent nations in London in December 1912 to draw up post-war boundaries in the Balkans.

By 1913, many in both Austria-Hungary and Germany—especially within the countries’ military leadership—had decided that a preventive war against Serbia would be necessary to restore the empire’s prestige and power; as Russia was almost certain to back Serbia in any such conflict, a third war in the Balkans would most likely proceed directly to a general European one, with Germany and Austria-Hungary facing off against Serbia, Russia, Russia’s primary ally, France, and possibly Britain.

For the time being, however, both Kaiser Wilhelm, emperor of Germany, and Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, continued to see the possibility of a peaceful resolution to the Balkans question, though they disputed the means of achieving it. Franz Ferdinand’s assassination (by a Serbian nationalist) in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, however, put an end to any such negotiations and toppled Europe, already teeming with unresolved conflict and irreconcilable differences between the great powers, headlong into the First World War.

The Battle of Jutland

On the afternoon of May 31, 1916, a British naval force commanded by Vice Admiral David Beatty confronted a squadron of German ships, led by Admiral Franz von Hipper, some 75 miles off the Danish coast. The two squadrons opened fire on each other simultaneously, beginning the opening phase of the greatest naval battle of World War I, the Battle of Jutland.

Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer ordered 19 U-boat submarines to position themselves for a raid on the North Sea coastal city of Sunderland while using air reconnaissance crafts to keep an eye on the British fleet’s movement from Scapa Flow. Bad weather hampered the airships, however, and Scheer called off the raid, instead ordering his fleet to head north, to the Skagerrak, a waterway located between Norway and northern Denmark, off the Jutland Peninsula, where they could attack Allied shipping interests and with luck, punch a hole in the stringent British blockade.

Unbeknownst to Scheer, however, a newly created intelligence unit located within an old building of the British Admiralty, known as Room 40, had cracked the German codes and warned the British Grand Fleet’s commander, Admiral John Rushworth Jellicoe, of Scheer’s intentions. Consequently, on the night of May 30, a British fleet steamed out, bound for positions off the Skagerrak.

The Battle of Jutland—or the Battle of the Skagerrak, as it was known to the Germans—engaged a total of 100,000 men aboard 250 ships over the course of 72 hours. The German navy lost eleven ships, including a battleship and a battle cruiser, and suffered 3,058 casualties; the British sustained heavier losses, with fourteen ships sunk, including three battle cruisers, and 6,784 casualties.

Scheer reported to the German high command that further fleet action was not an option, and that submarine warfare was Germany’s best hope for victory at sea. The German High Seas Fleet would make no further attempts to break the Allied blockade or to engage the Grand Fleet for the remainder of World War I.

George S. Patton

On September 20, 1918, 32-year-old Colonel George S. Patton of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) served at the Western Front in France. He wrote letters to his father recounting his experiences during the American-led offensive against the Germans at Saint-Mihiel earlier that month.

Patton had previously served in Mexico in 1916 under General John J. Pershing during the U.S. Army’s pursuit of Mexican rebel Pancho Villa. The following year, after the U.S. declared war on Germany, the young officer traveled to France as Pershing’s aide. At Saint-Mihiel, Patton was put in command of the light-tank brigade. The attack marked the AEF’s first major offensive operation as an independent army during World War I, as well as the first time the U.S. had used tanks in battle.

In his letters, Patton chronicles his experience in battle alongside a brigade commanded by General Douglas MacArthur (later the commander of all Allied Forces in the South Pacific during World War II) and his movement on foot across the battlefield, evading German shells and surveying the damage inflicted by the battle.

Later, wounded in the leg by a German machine-gun bullet, Patton was evacuated to a military hospital, where he enjoyed a full recovery. He returned home safe from France, receiving a Distinguished Service Cross and the Purple Heart for his service in World War I. Two decades later, as a General, Patton would play a leading role in World War II, becoming one of the most famous and controversial military figures in U.S. history.

Italy - From Ally to Axis

During World War II Italy became known as one of the major Axis powers along with Germany and Japan. But what is not taught as readily is that on May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on the side of the Allies for World War I.

When World War I broke out in the summer of 1914, Italy declared itself neutral in the conflict and over the course of the months that followed, Italy and its leaders weighed their options. Though technically aligned with Germany and Austria due to the Triple Alliance in 1882, the decision to join the fray on the side of the Allies was based largely on the assurances Italy received in the Treaty of London, signed in April 1915. This treaty stated that Italy would receive the fulfillment of its national dream: control over territory on its border with Austria-Hungary stretching from Trentino through the South Tyrol to Trieste, as well as further territory as well.

The Italian declaration opened up a new front in World War I, mobilizing roughly 1.2 Million soldiers, even though they only had produced enough equipment for 732,000. The Italian army quickly advanced into battle with Austria and produced several quick victories before becoming enmeshed in a stalemate at the Isonzo River in 1917. There the fighting took a bitter turn with negligible advancement and heavy casualties on both sides.

German assistance to Austria gave a spectacular victory over Italy with massive casualties and turned the war decisively, until British and French support, followed later by American troops.
By the time fighting ended on the Italian front on November 4, 1918, 615,000 Italians had been killed in action or died of wounds sustained in battle.

In the ensuing peace negotiations in Paris, the Italian government struggled against great opposition from the other Allied leaders to see that they were given all they had been promised in the Treaty of London. Though Italy would eventually get all that was stated in the treaty, many within the country were dissatisfied with their lot and continued to nurse resentments of the other Allied powers—resentments that would later drive the success of Benito Mussolini and his fascist movement and thus set the stage for World War II.

The Civil War and The 54th Massachusetts

The Congressional Medal of Honor is our nation’s highest honor and it is awarded to few, those individuals that through courageous action display our nation’s highest ideals of bravery, duty, and honor.

On May 23, 1900, this honor was awarded to Sergeant William Harvey Carney of the 54th Massachusetts Colored Infantry. He was the first African American to receive the Medal of Honor.

The 54th Massachusetts, formed in early 1863, served as the prototype for African American regiments in the Union army. The 54th was formed under the regiment's white commander, Colonel Robert Gould Shaw. The prototype was met with some trepidation as it was thought that the Colored Infantry Regiments would perform sub par in comparison to the other white regiments.

On July 16, 1863, the regiment saw its first action at James Island, South Carolina, performing admirably in a confrontation with experienced Confederate troops. Three days later, the 54th volunteered to lead the assault on Fort Wagner, a highly fortified outpost on Morris Island that was part of the Confederate defense of Charleston Harbor. Struggling against a lethal barrage of cannon and rifle fire, the regiment fought their way to the top of the fort's parapet over several hours. Sergeant Carney was wounded there while planting the U.S. flag. Colonel Shaw was killed, and his soldiers were overwhelmed by the fort's defenders and had to fall back.

Despite his wound, Carney refused to retreat until he removed the flag, and though successful, he was shot again in the process. The 54th lost 281 of its 600 men in its brave attempt to take Fort Wagner, which throughout the war never fell by force of arms. The 54th went on to perform honorably in expeditions in Georgia and Florida, and Carney eventually recovered and was discharged with disability on June 30, 1864.

The 54th Massachusetts, and the battles they fought, were immortalized later by Hollywood in the movie “Glory”, regarded by many as the best Civil War film of all time.

Germany, East and West

World War II resulted in the death of nearly ten million German soldiers and civilians. Germany had effectively been crippled by the war and there were other countries who were stronger and willing to step in and help out, and thus the country was split into four different military zones. The sectors which were controlled by the United States, France, and the United Kingdom were merged on May 23, 1949 to form The Federal Republic of Germany, commonly known as West Germany. The remaining part of Germany was controlled by the Soviet Union.

By 1961, the Soviet Union had built the Berlin Wall to stop people from East Germany going over to West Germany. This was the height of the "Cold War" - a term coined to describe the emerging tensions between two former wartime allies, the United States and Russia.

It was clear in 1989, when the Berlin wall came down, that the Cold War between the United States and Russia had ended. Many American citizens, from school students to those who were of age in the 60s, do not know that the separation between Eastern and Western Berlin was because of the Cold War.

The British Convoy System

World War I saw the advance of many new military innovations and procedures. On May 24, 1917 the British Royal Navy introduced one of their own, the newly created convoy system.

Driven by the spectacular success of German U-boat submarines attacking and destroying Allied and neutral ships, Britain’s Royal Admiralty instituted a system where all merchant ships crossing the Atlantic would travel in groups under the protection of the British Navy.

In the beginning of the war the Admiralty had believed that they could not afford to spare ships and other resources needed to implement such a system, but the effect of the U-boat Submarines was undeniable, with devastating losses. With the entrance of the United States into the World War, there was a greater need to ensure the safety of these ships to be able to transport the large numbers of supplies and troops from the Atlantic coast to Europe.

Under the new system a convoy of 10 to 50 merchant ships—along with, possibly, a troopship carrying arms and soldiers—might be escorted by a cruiser, six destroyers, 11 armed trawlers and a pair of torpedo boats with aerial reconnaissance equipment that could detect the movement of underwater submarines. Convoy gathering points were established along the Atlantic coast of North and South America - from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Hampton, Virginia, all the way down to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - to handle the transport not only of men and arms but also of foodstuffs and horses, the basic supplies of the Allied war effort.

The introduction of this system showed a sharp decline in the losses enacted by U-boat attrition and a distinct end to the plans of Germany to starve Britain into submission.

The US and Air Superiority

World War II saw the advance of many new concepts in modern warfare and chief among these was combat in the skies, to further the operations handled by traditional ground troops.

Air superiority allows for your military to conduct operations without hindrance from bomber attacks to your troops as well as ensuring that your forces can bomb the enemy without fear of enemy fighters. It can deny the enemy supplies by airdrop, troop reinforcement by parachute, and perform air strikes against heavy enemy troop emplacements in coordination with ground forces. It is defined in the NATO Glossary as "That degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another that permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force."

Examples of this theory in action include:

1. Britain's successful air defense in the Battle of Britain during World War II, which denied the German military air superiority in the English Channel - thus making a sea invasion by Germany impossible.
2. Another key example is the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor carried out by aircraft operating from Japanese aircraft carriers miles away from the nearest Japanese air base. This attack also resulted in the American forces relying on their aircraft carriers to devastating effect in campaigns within the Pacific Ocean.
3. Recently in the Gulf War, air superiority allowed for seemingly comical ease of ground forces to engage and occupy enemy territory. With a high ratio of success in the air this applied concept in air control allowed for victory against all fronts with the enemy, and cessation of hostilities in short time.

Achieving control of the airspace is a top priority of all current wars, as the benefits to successful operations has proven to be incalculable.

The Pact of Steel

On May 22, 1939, Italy and Germany formed a military alliance birthing the Axis powers, which would ultimately include Japan. The axis was a metaphor Italy’s Mussolini used to describe the binding of Rome and Berlin. The alliance was created with the signing of what Mussolini called ‘The Pact of Steel’ but was formally the ‘Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy’. Although this was the title, many, including signatory Count Galeazzo Ciano, were against the pact.

The pact consisted of two parts, the first was a declaration of trust and cooperation between the two nations, Italy and Germany, and the second a ‘Secret Supplementary Protocol’. The later encouraged joint military and economic policy between the nations. Both sides were fearful of one another and would only share military plans vaguely. The result was both Italy and Germany reacting to each other’s military action, rather than acting with the cooperation the pact promoted.

The Pact of Steel obligated Germany and Italy to aid the other country immediately in the event of war being declared and ensured that neither country could declare peace without the agreement of the other. At the time the pact was signed it was assumed that war would occur within three years. However, Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939 and war broke out on September 3rd. Italy was not fully prepared for the conflict and had trouble meeting its obligations. Consequently, Italy did not enter World War II until June of the following year with an aborted invasion of Southern France. Soon after, in September 1940, the pact extended to include Japan and was referred to as the Tripartite Pact.

Italy eventually allied with the western forces in 1943, breaking the pact that had been stipulated to last 10 years.

Armed Forces Day

In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote these still true words:

“It is fitting and proper that we devote one day each year to paying special tribute to those whose constancy and courage constitute one of the bulwarks guarding the freedom of this nation and the peace of the free world.”

President Eisenhower was referring to Armed Forces Day. Four years earlier, President Harry S. Truman had led the efforts to create the holiday for citizens to come together and give thanks to the men and women who protect our freedoms everyday. On August 31, 1949, Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson announced the creation of Armed Forces Day.

This single-day celebration replaced the separate holidays that honored the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. This consolidation stemmed from the unification of the Armed Forces under one department,­ the Department of Defense. On the very first Armed Forces Day celebration in 1950, President Truman declared that the day, “marks the first combined demonstration by America's defense team of its progress, under the National Security Act, towards the goal of readiness for any eventuality. It is the first parade of preparedness by the unified forces of our land, sea, and air defense.”

Ever since then we have celebrated Armed Forces Day on the third Saturday in May during war or peace. All branches of the Military have open house for civilians to come and learn more about what it means to serve in the military today. To find out what's going on in your area this Armed Forces Day, check your local paper, or call the Public Information Office at your closest military installation.

“... Our Servicemen and women are serving throughout the world as guardians of peace — many of them away from their homes, their friends and their families. They are visible evidence of our determination to meet any threat to the peace with measured strength and high resolve. They are also evidence of a harsh but inescapable truth — that the survival of freedom requires great cost and commitment, and great personal sacrifice.” — President John F. Kennedy, 1963

Memorial Day - Remembering Our Fallen Soldiers

The last Monday in May is Memorial Day. A three day weekend and the official beginning of summer, but it is also much more than that. This holiday is a day that was set aside to honor our fallen soldiers. Those that are our fathers our brothers and sisters, our children, that have fallen in battle serving their country.

In the beginning this holiday was known as Decoration Day, and was created by General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of former sailors and soldiers, on May 5, 1868. It was during this first celebration of Decoration Day that General James Garfield made a speech, at Arlington National Cemetery, and 5000 participants decorated the graves of more than 20,000 Union and Confederate Soldiers. In the late 1800s the services included the observance of World War I veterans and we've kept up tradition by including the fallen veterans of all of our conflicts since.

It was in 1971 that Congress declared Memorial Day a National Holiday and set it to be celebrated the last Monday in May. This holiday is often confused with Veterans Day, which is celebrated in November, but Veterans Day is to celebrate all of our veterans, living and dead.

So remember the fallen in battle during the upcoming holiday weekend. When you are out with your family, take a moment to remember them. No matter what our personal feelings on war are, these brave people, our fathers, brothers and sisters, gave the very most for their country.