The Battle of San Juan Hill

The Spanish-American War lasted a mere 109 days, spanning from April to August of 1898, but the courageous men who fought the war have never been forgotten, living on in the accounts of such memorable clashes as the Battle of San Juan Hill.

Located near Santiago, Cuba, San Juan Hill was a key tactical position in the war. Spanish forces controlled the high ground and were fortified in hilltop entrenchments. Although, while the trenches were well-constructed, they were poorly positioned, making them somewhat vulnerable to a direct assault.

General William Rufus Shafter led the American forces. He had a total of 15,000 men in three divisions. Jacob Kent commanded the 1^st Division, Henry Lawton commanded the 2^nd Division, and Joseph Wheeler was in charge of the Cavalry, although severe fever forced him to relinquish command to Samuel Sumner. Shafter's planned invasion of Santiago called for Lawton's 2^nd Division to weaken Spain's northern stronghold of El Caney before joining the assault on San Juan Heights.

But as Kent and Sumner's divisions held their ground in preparation for attack, the Spanish rained bullets upon them, inflicting significant casualties. The resulting confusion decimated communication between the forces, leaving the Americans sitting ducks.

Tired of waiting for the order to attack, a brash Lt. Colonel named Theodore Roosevelt spearheaded a valiant charge of his volunteer regiment, "The Rough Riders." With Roosevelt leading the way, the Americans were able to capture the smaller Kettle Hill. Seeing the initial surge, other regiments joined the charge, eventually capturing San Juan Hill in the bloodiest conflict of the entire war.

The Battle of Midway

In April of 1942, James Doolittle's daring raid of Japan changed the course of World War II. While little physical damage was inflicted, the attack struck a severe psychological blow, shattering Japan's supreme confidence that its homeland was immune from American aggression. Determined to prevent further assaults, Japan was forced into extending its defensive perimeter in the Pacific Ocean, targeting the Midway Atoll as a key operations point. Doing so led the Japanese navy to suffer a devastating defeat that swung the balance of power in the Pacific and eventually brought an end to the war.

The Battle of Midway took place between June 4 and June 7, 1942. The Japanese were confidently advancing on Midway with nearly all of its impressive Imperial Fleet, consisting of six aircraft carriers and a frightening assortment of cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. The Americans were greatly outnumbered, countering with only three aircraft carriers and far fewer support ships. And one of the carriers, the Yorktown, was barely operational after taking significant damage during the Battle of the Coral Sea.

Japan decisively won the initial air engagement, surgically destroying wave after wave of American torpedo bombers. Confident in their ultimate victory, the Japanese fighters returned to the carriers to refuel and reload in preparation for a counterattack on the U.S. fleet. Yet the failed torpedo bomber assault was merely a diversionary gambit on the part of the Americans.

With the Japanese fighter jets either reloading or dispersed at lower altitudes to intercept more torpedo bombers, the United States unleashed dive bombers from above, roaring in untouched to annihilate three of the vaunted Japanese carriers in a matter of seconds. A subsequent exchange would sink a fourth carrier, crippling the Japanese navy and granting America superiority in the Pacific.

The Battle of Thermopylae

In 480 BC an historical battle was fought at a narrow mountain pass in Greece between the invading Persian Army and the defending Greeks. At the time the Persians were considered unstoppable in their quest for then-known world domination. Apparently the Greeks chose the narrow pass at Thermopylae as the position for a stand in order to delay the Persian advance long enough to force them to retreat in search of food and water. While they did not quite accomplish that task, the results of the Greeks’ heroic resistance are still affecting war plans today.

After a couple of days of give and take fighting with neither side gaining an appreciable advantage the Army of the Greek King Xerxes was betrayed by one of their own who showed the Persians a way around the pass so that they could get behind the Greeks. Realizing the inevitability of the Persian victory Xerxes sent most of his army away in retreat, retaining only 300 Spartans and about 700 additional soldiers from Thespia to stand alone against the 10,000 so-called “Immortals” of the Persians.

In all likelihood the brave Spartans and Thespians knew that they would die but hoped to delay the end long enough to allow for the rest of the Greek army to make good their escape, which they were able to do while also inflicting a disproportionate number of losses on the Persians.

Today in military colleges worldwide the lesson of the Spartans is taught, a well trained, highly disciplined force in defense of its homeland will fight far better than an invading army looking for conquest and spoils. This fact is often taken into account when Generals plan invasions or battles.

The Fall of Saigon

When the Paris Peace Treaty was signed in 1973 leading the way to the United States’ removal of its military forces from South Vietnam it was only a matter of time until North Vietnam would make a move against the not overly competent army of the South.

During the 2 years between the Peace Treaty and January, 1975 the North had quietly been building up its numbers of fighters in the South as well as bringing in incredible amounts of guns, ammunition, explosives, and food for its combat troops. Emboldened by the resignation in August of 1974 of American President Richard Nixon and feeling strongly that neither the U.S. public nor their politicians would have the resolve to intervene in Vietnam again especially with the States in such a state of social turmoil, the North began a major offensive in January 1975.

Moving village to village and city to city, the massed forces of the North marched slowly south, securing territory along the way and forcing the South Viet Namese Army into a steady retreat toward the capital city of Saigon. By the beginning of April, 1975 most of the major cities around Saigon had been overtaken by the North and they began placing a stranglehold on the capital from all directions until by the morning of the 29th it was obvious to all that Saigon, and along with it the government of South Vietnam, would fall to the North.

Many Americans remember seeing video of the last hours of our involvement in Southeast Asia: the terrified civilian, government, and military occupants of Saigon scrambling desperately for the few seats available on evacuation aircraft and the helicopters being pushed into the sea from the decks of United States Naval ships to make room for the evacuation flights.

Some feel that we betrayed South Vietnam by refusing to aid them in resisting the North’s invasion, however after so many previous years of never-ending body bags coming home, the morass the political system was in after Nixon’s resignation, and the painful social divisions of American society that these events had created it was probably best that we withdraw and allow our own wounded society to heal.

GI Jane: A Debt and a Date

When Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby said that American women had “A debt and a date, a debt to democracy and a date with destiny” shortly after becoming the first commander of the new Women’s Army Corps (commonly known as the “WACs”) during the middle of the United States’ involvement in WW II she was certainly talking about the future of women in the military service of their country but was also paying tribute to the untold thousands who have served our country in one capacity or another since the times of the Revolutionary War.

From the legendary Molly Pitcher who reportedly took up loading and firing her fallen husband’s cannon during the Revolution, to Clara Barton who with boundless energy nursed the wounded and dying of both sides during the Civil War, to Colonel Hobby herself, who almost single-handedly is responsible for modern women in the military having received equal training, recognition, acceptance, and the opportunity to serve America in times of both war and peace, women have played a vital; and often unappreciated; role in the history of our Armed Services.

It is difficult to find a veteran of Vietnam or the first Gulf War who was wounded and doesn’t have at least one story about how important it was to their recovery to have the caring ministrations that one of the many hundreds of nurses in the battlefield hospitals provided to them. Often words such as “angel” and “lifesaver” are used to describe these brave female soldiers.

In the military of today women have truly achieved equality in training, assignments, promotions, and the opportunity to serve in combat units. It is obvious that American women have fulfilled “their debt to democracy” and are keeping their “date with destiny” just as Colonel Hobby stated so many years ago.

The Real Civil War Uniforms

In the hundreds of movies that have been made and the thousands of stories written about the United States Civil War there are always frequent references to and scenes of heated battles pitting the blue clad soldiers of the Northern Armies against the gray adorned Southerners.

By the end of the war it was technically true that the official uniform colors of each side’s army was well established as such. However, for most of the actual combat the North had its uniforms supplied by individual towns, counties, states, and often even by wealthy individuals who could afford to outfit a troop. This practice led to a great variety of different styles of dress and also to varying colors of the final uniform that the soldiers wore. Through the course of the conflict, after it became apparent that the North would eventually win and Congress finally began appropriating enough funds for “niceties” such as uniforms, Northern textile mills began churning out great numbers of matching blue wool uniforms that provided conformity to the battlefield appearance of its army.

The South on the other hand never did really have enough war essentials such as guns, bullets, or even food to ever devote its limited production facilities to making enough regulation gray uniforms to go around. Troopers that did initially get outfitted in the official gray of the Confederacy were seldom able to secure replacements when pants or shirts were either damaged beyond repair or worn out. This shortage led to many Southern soldiers wearing either their civilian clothes in battle or securing whatever clothing that they could find along their route of march. As the war drug on and the shortages of essentials grew worse at the same time that the government of Jefferson Davis was going broke the civilian attired soldiers had the same challenges in replacing worn or damaged uniforms as those who had true gray.

By the actual end of the war the Northern Army had pretty much fully standardized its uniforms in the now familiar deep blue while the South’s warriors were a motley looking, some would even say, “ragtag” crew outfitted in many various colors and styles of shirts and pants.

In point of fact there were very few skirmishes during the war that actually featured “Blue Vs. Gray”.

The B-52 Stratofortress

In 1952 when the first of the 744 B-52s that would eventually be built and see service took off into the blue skies above the Boeing Aircraft Plant no one could have guessed that it would not only set several remarkable flight records but also become the longest serving aircraft design in the history of aviation.

The massive plane, its wingspan is 185 feet and its length nearly 160 feet, is still on America’s first line of national defense and continues to amaze engineers, crew members, and pretty much everyone else learning of its amazing service record and expected longevity.

Since the last models were built and delivered in 1962 most of the pilots and airmen manning these durable workhorses are younger than their planes are. Astonishingly, the United States Air Force plans to keep the existing B-52s in service until at least the year 2040 as a key component of national security. When the time finally does come to mothball the last B-52 the planes will have provided nearly 90 years of continuous service.

The first truly long range bomber with a maximum flight distance of more than 8,800 miles before requiring refueling, the B-52 is able to travel at nearly 600 miles per hour and deliver a payload of up to 70,000 pounds of bombs on its target. Wanting to expand the flight range even further, now common but at the time revolutionary, jet-to-jet refueling techniques were developed to keep the B-52 in the air for ever longer periods of time and to allow patrols over ever increasing distances.

With its phenomenal time-in-service it can be argued that the B-52 has been the most cost-effective investment ever made in the interest of war or national defense.

The Correct Bunker Hill

Ask most Americans about the significance of Boston’s Bunker Hill and they will tell you that it was the site of a famous battle during the Revolutionary War.

The battle actually took place in more than a year before the signing of the Declaration of Independence and while the American Colonials had received orders to develop a defensive position on Bunker’s Hill in response to having learned of the British Army’s plan to occupy both the Charlestown and Dorchester Heights peninsulas in order to control the harbor after arriving at the site and reviewing the surrounding geography, the decision was made by the Patriots to build their small fortification on the nearby Breed’s Hill as it seemed like a more easily defended location.

This strategy was highly effective and caught the British completely off-guard. Once the Redcoats realized that the Americans had dug in on Breed’s Hill they mounted several unsuccessful charges attempting to force the colonists to flee. Eventually the English were able to breach the defensive fortifications that the Americans had hastily built and force a full-scale retreat.

The British Army paid a steep price for their determination to teach the “rebels” a lesson however as the Americans inflicted more than 1,000 casualties on the British while suffering less than ½ that number themselves. The Patriot’s courage and success in the face of a much stronger and better equipped force forever destroyed the British Army’s reputation for invincibility thereby emboldening further acts toward the eventual declaration of war.

For some reason, probably due to the fact that the original plan was to defend Bunker Hill, this battle has gone down in history misnamed with the error being taught to generations of schoolchildren.

Spy in the Sky: The U-2

In August of 1955 intelligence gathering between nations was forever changed with the successful deployment of the first US developed U-2 reconnaissance plane.

The U-2’s radical design features, which allowed it to reach previously unattainable cruising altitudes of more than 70,000 feet (nearly 14 miles) above the earth, provided the United States with the capability of literally putting a camera eye-in-the-sky far above where any conventional anti-aircraft guns, fighter planes or missiles could reach it.

Coupled with the latest photographic lenses developed by Polaroid the U-2 was able to take amazingly clear (for that time) pictures with an incredible (again; for the time) resolution of just 2 ½ feet which effectively ended any Soviet hopes for secrecy regarding clandestine troop movements, military building projects, nuclear tests or other aggressive actions.

Hoping to avoid starting an all-out war with the Soviet Union should any of the U-2 “weather planes” or their pilots be captured and it then be proven that the United States military was openly violating Soviet airspace, it was determined that only “civilians” would be allowed to fly the spy planes. The CIA was technically the agency in charge of all missions; obviously reporting in full to the Armed Forces all of their findings; and all of the pilots were forced to resign their military commissions in order to be hired as a private pilot by the CIA.

This ploy turned out to be most effective in 1960 when a U-2 was brought down (there is still debate over exactly how the supposedly “undownable” plane was brought to ground) over Russian territory and the pilot captured. By claiming that the U-2 was actually a weather plane blown off-course the event eventually defused itself and armed conflict, which at the time would likely have led to the use of nuclear weapons, was avoided. Even though the ruse served its purpose, relations between the two superpowers continued to deteriorate until the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.

After more than 50 years of reliable service and uncountable upgrades along the way, it was announced in early 2006 that the existing fleet of U-2s would be permanently retired in favor of satellite technology.

Eventual Desegregation

While many rightly credit Abraham Lincoln with ending slavery and thereby opening the “American Dream” to persons of all skin colors; as is common in human history, words are easier to speak than results are to achieve.

Although the historic Emancipation Proclamation took effect as official policy and indeed the law of the land on January 1st, 1863 it wasn’t until the summer of 1948 that President Harry Truman formally ended segregation in the Armed Forces of the United States by signing the now famous Executive Order 9981.

While Truman’s many detractors suggest that this Southern born and raised man’s action was politically motivated, that he felt that he needed the African-American vote to win election in his own right in the fall of 1948, the fact remains that he steadfastly refused to budge when the military was slow to implement total desegregation in its ranks.

Facing stiff resistance even from members of his own Cabinet and particularly from the commanding officers of the Army and Marine Corps, Truman continued to poke and prod America towards full desegregation.

He received a big boost in his efforts when the Korean War broke out and suddenly the armed forces were in need of yet another massive build-up of personnel. Due to the increased manpower needs, Truman’s relentless insistence, and the American public’s growing awareness of the inequality and injustices of segregation by early 1951 the Defense Department was able to issue a statement notifying the country and the world that basic training in all branches of the US Military was fully integrated.

The Army of One

Other than keenly observant military historians, few can trace the origin of the US Army’s present slogan; “An Army of One” to the W.W.I battle that forever changed the way war is waged.

Prior to the battle of Meuse-Argonne in France, which began on September 26, 1918 and mercifully was finally ended with the Armistice on November 11 of that year, virtually all battles were fought using more men than equipment.

Traditionally, mortal courage and human aggressiveness were considered to be the key elements of success on a battlefield and indeed for millennia this theory had proven true as retold in countless stories of heroic charges against seemingly overwhelming odds that had carried the day and brought victory to the boldest and bravest of the competing warriors.

Prior to the Battle of the Meuse-Argonne, the French and British had already began thinking along the lines of letting equipment do most of the heavy fighting and then sending in troops to mop up based on the horrific losses that they had suffered in the years of trench warfare that they had endured up to that battle. As a result of their new manner of conducting war; including firing thousands of artillery rounds, deploying hundreds of armored tanks, and blasting at the German positions with uncountable howitzer rounds and then moving their ground forces forward with yet more artillery fire leading the way; they were able to neutralize 4 or 5 enemy soldiers for each man that they had killed, captured or wounded.

The Americans, not having learned so dearly the lessons of the trenches and still following the traditional “over the top” and “guts and glory” mentality of warfare by sending wave after wave of lightly armed infantry into literal hails of machine gun bullets, artillery fire, and exploding mortar shells showed a final reckoning of this final battle of the “war to end all wars” of more than 120,000 killed or wounded—almost exactly the same number of casualties that the Germans suffered or a one-to-one ratio.

Once peace was restored and military minds began reviewing the lessons of WW I in general and the battle of Meuse-Argonne in particular it became obvious that future wars would be fought with a much greater dependence on technology and the equipment that technology was able to create.

These lessons have led us to the point where today the US Army’s goal is to literally make each individual solider as capable of completing a modern mission that traditionally required a platoon of men to accomplish. That is why each modern soldier carries a camera, radio, and ever more powerful and diverse weaponry and will generally not advance into a danger zone until air power or laser guided missiles have done much of the dirty work for them.

The Cold War in Nevada

The Soviet Union’s successful detonation of an atomic device in 1949 solidified America’s commitment to developing a permanent nuclear proving ground facility within our own borders. Due to its remote, and at the time virtually inaccessible location, an area just 65 miles north of Las Vegas, Nevada was selected and named the Nevada Test Site.

The barren desert terrain looks as though it may be located be on another planet and was considered ideal for testing, recording, and measuring the power released when atoms are ripped apart as well as for monitoring the radioactive fallout generated by the nearly 1,000 nuclear explosions, both above and below ground, performed there between January 1951 and the Test Site’s final blast in September of 1992.

At various times the testing emphasis was placed on the effects of a nuclear blast on flesh, vehicles, buildings, and; in one particularly unpleasant experiment; on the retinas of eyes exposed to the brighter-than-the-sun mushroom cloud such explosions create.

While there is no doubt that the information learned from the testing was invaluable in keeping the USA ahead in the ensuing global arms race many still contend that the final human price has not been paid for that knowledge. By some estimates there have been at least 6,000 premature deaths directly attributable to thyroid cancer caused by the exposure to radiation that many military personnel, researchers, and the civilian population downwind from the tests experienced.

As the effects of radiation exposure became more fully known the Nevada Test Site became “Ground Zero” for many nuclear protests and demonstrations which eventually created so much negative publicity for the military and politicians that the facility was permanently closed.

Was the information gained worth the cost in dollars, resources, and lives? Only if the world remains forever free from the horror of an all-out nuclear war will be able to give a definite “Yes” answer to that question.

The Bismarck

The German Bismarck was, perhaps, the most infamous ship of World War II. Recollected for its new age technology and heavy artillery, the Bismarck is also remembered as one of the most short-lived ships in World War Two history. The Bismarck came into conception during the year 1939. The Germans sought to build a ship that was heavily armed (carrying over 40 differing types of guns and weapons) and at the same time could withstand both naval and aircraft fire. This was not an easy feat since most of the world was out to sink Germany battleships. The Bismarck set sail heading for the Atlantic Ocean during the month of May, 1941 carrying over 2,000 German soldiers.

For the majority of the trip, the Bismarck traveled with other German ships in order to ensure its safety, but the Bismarck had been trailed by British cruisers throughout most of the journey. When the Bismarck was in firing range, the British ships launched their attack on the newly released Bismarck. Unknown to the British, the Bismarck was not only heavily guarded, but this ship had a thick steel band surrounding the outside of its body. The sole intent of the steel belt was to protect the Bismarck from potential fire. The addition of the steel belt proved to be very useful in helping to protect the Bismarck’s crew members. The first ship that sought to fight with the Bismarck was sunk shortly after the firing began. But the Bismarck did not go unscathed, and as it attempted to head back to its home ground, British aircraft caught sight of the ship and the Bismarck was successfully sunk on May 27th, 1941.

The B-17 Flying Fortress

The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was an American invention that changed the view of the World War II skies forever. Prior to the B-17, countries were dependant upon bombs dropped by men from hovering airplanes (such as the German Zeppelin). Earlier means of deploying bombs meant that the airplanes had to hover for a long period of time making them an easy enemy target. Additionally, early planes were not able to defend themselves against counter attacks and were virtually sitting ducks.

The B-17 could cruise along at speeds up to 200 mph, and each one was equipped with .50 caliber automatic weapons. A fast, well-equipped flying machine that could drop its own bombs and at the same time defend itself against anti-missile guns with automatic machine rifles was unheard of when the planes first entered the airspace. Five hundred thousand bombs were dropped over German troops and towns from the base of B-17 bombers at a range of up to 2,000 miles away during the length of the war. Largely unafraid of enemy firing, the B-17 flew during the daytime and was a rapid threat to the German occupation.

Throughout the war, the B-17 was only made stronger and was given a solid frame that made it virtually impenetrable to any sort of anti-aircraft weapon. Later editions included B-17s that were given more machine guns in order to ensure that bombs would be dropped effectively and that pilots would return home safely. These airplanes made sure that Nazi rivals were certain to hit their target every time.

The V-1 Flying Bomb

The German-developed V-1 flying bomb would be known today, though it was much less accurate, as a cruise missile. The bomb was the brainchild of two German engineers who sought to create a very simple flying instrument that would injure upon impact by detonating an explosive hidden within the shell. The first V-1 was constructed from sheet metal and wood, making it relatively cost effective. The basic principle to the V-1 was built upon the simple idea of a mini-airplane wrapped around a bomb, only much more aerodynamic. Nazi troops used the French and Dutch coasts to launch the bombs from an elevated level, which allowed the plane-like missile to rocket into the air at a rapid pace. The V-1s could operate from zero ground speed with the rhythm of a simple pulse jet engine, which beat fifty times per second. A simple device within the missile forced the bomb to land at a certain distance causing large amounts of destruction. These earlier missiles were not precise in their targets often landing amidst civilians or varying entirely off course.

These “buzz bombs” (as they were commonly called) posed a large problem for allied forces, who had not yet conceived such a device. Reaching elevation heights of up to 3,000 feet, the V-1 was an unreachable target for any anti-aircraft gun. Desperate for a method to knock the missiles out of the sky, allies developed an airplane called the “Tempest.” The main purpose of the Tempest was to try, literally, to knock the flying bomb out of the sky. When Nazi Germany fell, so did the launch pads and hide-outs that the Germans used to store their bombs, but their legacy lived on and these pioneering missiles were finely tuned over time. Today, cruise missiles can be filled with any sort of bomb or gas and are extremely accurate.

The Submachine Gun

Bombs flew over head, men peeked over trench lines and quickly shot at the enemy, and some men even ran across fields to attempt slaying their opponent via the sharp blade of their bayonet. Fighting tactics during World War I were less than effective and more than gruesome, but troops worked with the weapons that they had. Towards the end of World War I, along came the submachine gun and changed the way that battles were fought. Originally designed by Italy to aid its troops in trench warfare, the submachine gun was not an accurate weapon, but it was highly efficient. The introduction of this gun meant that men no longer had to run across enemy lines in hopes of wounding a foe. The submachine gun was a sure thing. Hundreds of bullets splattered the air eliminating anything that was in its path.

During World War II, the submachine gun was still regarded as a highly effective weapon. The gun was engineered to be lighter and to shoot even more rapidly than before. During the Second World War, Italy, Germany, and the United States were the only three countries that began to develop these guns in large quantities. Although perfect for trench wars, the submachine gun was not capable of long range power and could not be used to attack incoming airplanes. With the eventual advancement of arms came the advancement of armor, and as troops and military vehicles began to become more adequately protected, the submachine gun proved useless against the newer, heavier tanks, and the well equipped men.

The Pacific War

The War in the Pacific, commonly known as The Pacific War, took place during World War II and drew the United States into a conflict it had tried to stay out of. Beginning with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1944, the United States was engaged in warfare with the Japanese whether it wanted to be or not. In addition, sensing an opportune time and waiting until the United States base at Pearl Harbor was attacked and weakened, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States on the same day that the United States declared war on Nazi Germany -- the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. Though the United States and its allies had a long terrain battle ahead of them, the naval battle that was the Pacific War played a crucial part in the U.S involvement of World War II.

Naval fighting in the Pacific Ocean, East Asia, and the Pacific Islands was adding a great amount of damage to countries already fighting land wars against Nazi Germany – making recuperation and funding extremely difficult to come by. Allied participants involved in the Pacific World War included the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, The United States, China, Mexico, Canada and various other countries along the way. At one point, on April 1, 1942, near almost complete annihilation, the allied countries decided to band together to form the Pacific War Council. Representatives from China, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and Britain decided that the council would be held in Washington D.C., and would be head up by the United States. Though it never sought to become involved in World War II from the beginning, the United States now found itself at the center of the stage. Though many naval wars and various fighting strategies were highly effective in aiding the allied countries, the Japanese forces were finally defeated for good on August of 1945 with the nuclear bombing of Nagasaki, Japan.

88mm Anti-Aircraft Gun

The German-engineered 88mm anti-aircraft gun was Germany’s only means of attack against high-flying, fast-paced aircrafts during the Second World War. The gun was crafted by the same maker that fashioned most of Germany’s artillery, the Krupps Company. This gun was craftily engineered with a long muzzle that could be a deadly shot when tilted and aimed at the sky, and could cause equally devastating effects when shot at close range. Germany wasted no expense during World War II, and unlike other countries that were desperately trying to conserve funds and manufacture cheaper weapons, Germany mass produced its 88mm guns ensuring that no battle would go without the crucial anti-aircraft gun.

These progressive guns, like most of the weapons used during the world wars, were constantly being updated and bettered by German engineers. As enemy planes were able to fly higher, the guns also had to be able to reach a higher altitude in order to be effective. Various models of the 88mm gun were produced during the war. In an attempt to keep up with Germany’s lavish spending and quick ingenuity, allied countries had to think of ways to keep their aircrafts in the sky and avoid the looming threat that an anti-aircraft gun could be waiting on the ground to shoot them out of the air. Eventually, planes were developed that could fly higher than the 88mm gun could reach, but that posed another problem – accuracy. If planes flew too high, their targets would likely be missed. This called for highly skilled pilots, and German soldiers that were capable of swiftly manning the 88mm guns. Battle fields eventually became a constant game of hit or miss, as planes swooped down and Germans took aim, each hoping to catch the other off guard.

The Battle of Normandy

The Battle of Normandy was the largest sea borne invasion in history. No battle – even today – has matched this important fight against Nazi Germany. In a last effort to defeat Nazi Germany and drive them out of Europe forever, the allied forces (including Canada, the United States, France, Belgium, Greece, Czechoslovakia, and the Netherlands) met, planned, and constructed a massive military operation that has never been forgotten. Never before and never again has the world seen such unity involving so many different countries with the same goal in mind.

The plan was to cross the English Channel from England to Normandy, France, hitting the shores of Normandy where over three million troops would gather together and fight Nazi troops, which were in the process of occupying various parts of France, including Paris. On the night of June 6th, 1944, the atmosphere became silently cloudy with hundreds of parachutes, while the oceans became murky with the leer of hundreds of naval ships from each country. Troops swarmed the beaches at Normandy and made their way up the rocky cliffs in search of the Nazi enemy.

The allied countries did not come ill-equipped and fought against the German enemy with specially adapted equipment such as vehicles that were able to function on land or in water, fire throwing tanks, and specially designed tanks that could repair bridges and fix roads. Those countries that entered Normandy together knew that this would not be a fast or easily fought battle and they were right – the battled raged for two long months. Finally in August of 1944, the allied troops were able to liberate Paris from the hands of the Nazi’s and Hitler was forced to retreat.

The STEN Gun

During World War II, Britain bought most of its submachine guns from the United States, which seemed to work out nicely for both countries at the beginning of the war. But as Britain began to come under heavy attack, many of its soldiers were killed and their weapons were taken by opposing armies. Suddenly, Britain was in a poor position, there weren’t enough guns coming in from the United States to replace the amount of guns that were rapidly disappearing from the military’s stock. In a panic, Britain’s Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, sought to devise a gun that could be swiftly manufactured and sent to fighting troops. The only problem was that Britain’s funds were also rapidly fading, this meant that Britain had to find a way to manufacture a gun that was both easy to assemble and cost effective. Engineers came up with the STEN gun, which was aptly named for the initials of its team of designers.

The STEN could be assembled in a mere five hours and was made from simple metal, which needed little welding in order to construct it. The thin, easy to assemble STEN guns were dropped from aircraft carriers to waiting ground troops who were badly in need of protection. Surprisingly, these close range guns were extremely effective and packed a deadly punch once they were delivered to infantry. In addition, the STENs were small and could be taken apart in order to conceal each piece of the gun underneath clothing or inside of backpacks, which was crucial for soldier survival and for efficiency.

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

Prior to December 7th, now known as “D-Day,” Japanese strategists were debating the attack on the United States via Hawaii’s Pearl Harbor. President Roosevelt had moved the U.S. Navy to Pearl Harbor in order to efficiently defend the United States’ ports. Although the Japanese saw great difficulties in attempting to attack such a naval base as the one at Peal Harbor, the Japanese government felt that it must go through with their plan. The layout of the land and sea made traditional means of attack useless at Pearl Harbor. Aircrafts would be seen from miles away, given the open skies that surrounded the base, and, likewise, boats that attempted to enter the harbor would not go unseen. However, equally important was the land that jutted out into the sea in the form of Hawaii. This land was surrounded by ocean for miles around and was relatively vulnerable to any attack that could come from the sea. Carefully weighing their options, the Japanese took their chances, and decided to attack.

On December 7th, 1941, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor in Oahu, Hawaii was hit hard with a surprise attack. The Japanese fleet was solely seeking to defuse the American naval strength for fear that the United States would retaliate against Japan for attempting to conquer Singapore and the East Indies in an unfair territorial takeover. The American navy suffered tremendous consequences as a result of being completely caught off guard. Causalities numbered in the thousands with hundreds of aircraft and naval ships destroyed. In contrast, Japan’s losses did not reach the hundreds, and only a few of their ships were eliminated.

The attack angered the United States government, and the day following the Japanese attack, December 8th, 1941, marked the official United States entrance into World War II. With President Roosevelt leading the way, the U.S. military did exactly what Japan had feared – it retaliated.

Submarine Warfare

During the world wars, armies took to the seas and began to fight using boats that could submerge themselves fully in water. Known by their general term “submarines” each country had their own style of submarine, and more importantly, each country had their own way of navigating the sea bed. Almost every navy throughout the world had a fleet of submarines, though it wasn’t until the invention of a partly diesel, partly gas engine that submarines began to become useful and more efficient. The ability to both fight on top of the water and lurk upon the ocean floor meant that countries could now cover sea, land, and air – this was a huge breakthrough in the world of combat.

Germany had the largest fleet of submarines amongst all of the navies involved in World War II. But it wasn’t their numbers alone that gave the German “U-Boats,” the upper hand as far as naval combat went. Sticking to its strategic fighting style, Germany’s submarine attacks were specific, calculated, and effective. Acting as a scout, one U-Boat in a fleet of many sought out other enemy submarines that were hidden on the ocean floor. Rather than attack immediately, the U-Boat scout would send out signals to its comrades, and once the enemy boat was completely surrounded there was no chance of escape.

Although inter-submarine warfare was seemingly simple from a naval perspective, striking a submarine from the air was no easy feat. In fact, the first submarine ever to be spotted and attacked by air was a French submarine that was targeted by a Serbian pilot. Neither side had witnessed such accuracy before, but now the possibility of destroying submarines from the air was no longer such a far-fetched idea. Being able to utilize all of the earth’s elements meant that each military army was becoming stronger and more equal as the war advanced.

The Art of Blitzkrieg

Whether the term “blitzkrieg” (“lightning fire”) was actually used by German soldiers during the war or not is debatable. What is certain is that the German army used a form of attack that placed strategic planning over physical combat, mind over matter so-to-speak. Ingeniously utilizing the predictability of basic human nature, this type of attack was developed as a means to eliminate the enemy effectively without uselessly exhausting manpower.

As German aircrafts swarmed over unsuspecting troops, men that were laying in trenches waiting for a land war were completely taken off guard and were forced to scurry in order to gather enough men and take shelter in anticipation of another air raid. Often, foot soldiers didn’t stand a chance against numerous bombs that were falling from the sky. Adding the element of surprise to the mix, a second air raid never followed the first one. Instead, amidst dust, chaos, and confusion, German ground artillery began its mobile attack, seemingly coming from nowhere to finish what the air raid had started. Just in case the aircrafts and tanks hadn’t completely finished the job, German infantry began to move onto the battle ground in order to destroy whatever was left behind.

This form of attack was highly successful and an invaluable part of German warfare. The German army saw no need to waste time with ineffectual trench fighting, which would often take days and had very limited amounts of progression. Banking upon basic human nature, the Blitzkrieg was constructed for the sole purpose of keeping Germany’s foes on their toes.

The T-10 Tank

Even the simple task of naming this Soviet-built World War II tank seems to have been a bit of a comical feat for Soviet engineers. Originally called the “KV-85,” it was named for Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov. The tank was later re-named to the “Losif Stalin Tank,” after Voroshilov “retired” from his political office. Later, in keeping with tradition after Stalin’s death, the tank found its permanent name: the “T-10.” Whatever confusion the naming of this tank caused, its purpose was clearly marked—to combat the German 88mm anti-aircraft guns during the war. This tank was solidly built, heavily armored, and was the first tank to include adequate protection for the soldiers within its walls.

In addition to eliminating anti-aircraft guns, this tank could effectively knock down steel bunkers and forts, something which earlier tanks could not accomplish. Although its purpose was well engineered, the tank’s ammunition proved to be a large problem for the soldiers operating it. The weighty shells were extremely difficult to lift and load, resulting in a mere two rounds per minute. Rather than abandoning the idea of a tank that could fight the highly advanced German weaponry, the Soviets worked throughout the war to make necessary changes to the earlier T-10. The later 1944 edition was lighter, better equipped, and included ammunition that did not require numerous soldiers to lift. Helping Soviet soldiers to protect themselves against German troops, the T-10 proved to be a useful piece of machinery, begging the question – what’s in a name?

Rosie the Riveter

Although the situation that the United States was in during World War II was anything but cheerful, the image of Rosie the Riveter put hope into the hearts of millions of American women. During the war, factories normally run by men (who were now fighting on the front lines) were beginning to show a serious lack of progress due to the scarcity of workers. America’s troops were heavily reliant on the products that the factories produced, which helped keep artillery and motor parts abundant. Key elements used to aid in the war such as ammunition, ship parts, and metals were slowly becoming in short supply. Since these factories were a key part in helping America and its allies to win the war and defeat the Axis powers, the American government realized that unless it intervened, factories and the parts that it made would be shut down until the war ended. Desperate for help, the United States Government decided to reach out to the many widows, single women, and house wives who were eager to help out in any way that they could.

Based on riveter Rose Will Monroe, who worked in an aircraft factory, the government launched a nation wide campaign. Promotional videos were developed with Rose (later turned “Rosie”) as the main feature. Suddenly, women around the country became excited at the idea of taking the place of men and helping to keep American factories running. Over six million women went to work believing that they were playing a large part in helping the war effort – and they were. Without icons such as Rosie the Riveter (the slogan: “We Can Do It” that was later attached to her name), American factories would have shut down and troops would have been left without adequate parts and ammunition for the war that they were fighting. America ran on female power, quite literally, during the World War II with Rosie the Riveter leading their way.

Big Bertha

Almost certainly evoking cries of woe from every woman blessed with the name “Bertha,” this enormous 1,350 ton gun was a great adaptation of the earlier Howitzer’s. The shells alone weighed a massive 1,807 pounds each and the gun could reach up to 8 miles away, nearly eliminating anything in its path. One of the great improvements from the earlier Howitzer was the type of platforms the Big Bertha could be mounted on. This newer version could tilt up to eighty degrees in either direction, making it a very effective tool. The addition of either wheels or a railway cart gave the Big Bertha much needed speed.

The Big Bertha was designed in 1904 by the Krupps factory located in Essen, Germany. The factory only produced six of these machines primarily used to destroy forts in both Belgium and Northern France, but the gun was very effective in nearly any situation. Also, much like the earlier Howitzer’s, the mere sight of a Big Bertha wheeling up to enemy trenches would cause them to surrender on the spot. Resistance against this large, metallic beast seemed futile. However, with innovations in warfare technology, Germany had no more use for the Big Bertha after realizing that even this fear instilling monstrosity had little effect on newer, steel enforced forts. With technology quickly advancing throughout the war, the Big Bertha played a large part for Germany in successfully defeating large portions of Belgium and Northern France, but was quickly abandoned before World War I had ended.

The Howitzer

Bulky by today’s standards, the Howitzer, which was first designed at the end of the 17th century, gave those countries that decided to use it an upper hand during World War I. These economical instruments were less stable when they were firing, which meant that less gun powder had to be used in order to operate the gun. In turn, countries using the Howitzer’s spent less money on gun powder and more money invest in buying or manufacturing the guns. Less gun powder also meant that soldiers wouldn’t have to carry around any additional weight – the gun itself already weighed around 200 tons. At a great inconvenience to the men that handled it, the Howitzer had to be wheeled it its destination, mounted at an angle, and aimed downwards in order to shoot. Surprisingly, all of this bulk gave great advantage to the Germans, who perfected the weapon, during the war.

World War I saw the large usage of trenches as a form of protection for troops stationed within them. These large, dug holes were surrounded by slight barrier walls that made a perfect stands for cradling the barrel of a rifle. Trench warfare was extremely popular during both World Wars, and countries often flocked to the trench in order to provide what seemed like the best protection from most of the guns that fired in straight line. Unfortunately for the men protected by the trench wall, the Howitzer did not fire in a straight line. “Fire in the hole!” is likely what the men waiting in the trenches were thinking when they caught a glimpse of a Howitzer’s nose. Once this massive hunk of metal was seen, trench troops had no hope of survival. Often they surrendered simply upon sight of the Howitzer.

Throughout the war, the Howitzer was updated and engineers sought to fashion the instrument in order to more closely resemble a gun. Their main goal was to make the Howitzer lighter, more agile, and easier to use. Towards the end of the war, this weapon had begun to resemble a regular gun, with the added features of a longer barrel (which meant a longer range shot), and various types of platforms that it could be carried upon.

The Zepplin

Seemingly harmless, the German Zeppelin was built during the early 20th century by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, and was originally designed to be a passenger plane. The first Zeppelin was square shaped and did not last more than eighteen minutes in flight before it came crashing down to earth. This large blimp was slightly difficult to navigate, rudders and elevator fins had to be constantly adjusted in order to make the plane fly on course. Over time during the 1920’s, the Zeppelin was adapted and turned out to be a better cargo plane than passenger plane. With its metal alloy skeleton and large but cramped space towards the bottom of the plane, the Zeppelin was able to stack more cargo than passengers in its base. In order to ensure a safe flight, crew or cargo often filled out the bottom of the airplane for stability reasons alone, since this large airborne craft was less than agile.

During World War I, the German army no longer viewed the Zeppelin as a passenger or cargo plane. Recognizing a great opportunity to use the air-borne monsters for viewing ground activity from a distance, as well as using the planes to drop bombs on unsuspecting towns, the Zeppelin suddenly became a looming threat. Only able to fly via an outer shell that contained numerous hydrogen filled “balloons,” the Zeppelin turned out to be an inadequate war time airplane and became highly susceptible to gun fire. Eighty-eight Zeppelins were built during World War I, and sixty of them were lost – most likely being shot out of the sky and falling to the earth in a dusty explosion.

The Battle of Liege

On August 5th 1914, the little town of Liège, Belgium had a problem – it was smack in the middle of the path towards Northern France. The Belgian government knew that it would eventually have to face the military power that was Germany, and they prepared for the inevitable battle by erecting a dozen armed forts, which surrounded the town. The small forts were manned by 70,000 Belgian troops, but only around 400 retractable guns. Liège had hoped that their forts would be enough to resist the rapidly approaching German infantry, but they had no way of knowing what sort of advanced weaponry Germany had up its sleeve.

Later that same night, out of the 320,000 German troops that were sent to occupy the town of Liége, 30,000 men, led by Commander Otto von Emmich, stomped their way onto Belgian soil. This began the first land war of World War I. The Belgian soldiers fought gallantly and were determined to keep their town safe and on the night of the 5th, and they succeeded. The Belgian troops caused a surprising number of casualties, putting a large dent in the German force. Unfortunately, the Belgian victory was short lived as Germany decided that its ground troops were not making enough leeway and, performing the world’s first air raid, dropped bombs from the base of the newly adapted Zeppelin onto the small town. During the air raid, the remaining German foot soldiers saw the opportunity to progress towards Liège’s forts using never before seen Howitzers and Big Bertha guns; this time the German troops were successful and the town of Liége was captured on August 15th, 1914.

The Navajo Code Talkers

The Comanche and Navajo men in the Armed Forces played an integral part in WWII, saving countless American and Allied lives. The Indians that served were the key to the success of the war from Normandy to Berlin and the Pacific theater by developing an unbreakable decryption code using their own languages.

Phillip Johnston, the son of a missionary to the Navajo, recommended this idea because it answered the military requirement for an undecipherable code; Navajo is an unwritten language of extreme complexity.

The first groups of Indians from the tribes developed a dictionary and numerous code words for military terms which had to be memorized during basic training. Under combat conditions they could encode, transmit, and decode a 3 line message in 20 seconds. The fastest decryption machines took 20 minutes. The “Code Talkers” transmitted orders, tactics, troop movements, and other vital battlefield communications through radio and telephones.

The Marines used Navajo in all their communications, which stymied the Japanese in the Pacific realm. They were given praise by a Commander of the 5^th Marine Division for being the reason the Marines were able to take Iwo Jima.

The Army used Comanche recruits. Two were assigned to each of the 4th Infantry Division’s three regimens. They sent coded messages from the front lines to headquarters where other Comanche decoded them.

Kevin Grover, of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, is quoted as saying the BIA “dedicated itself for the first half of this century to destroying the native languages that proved to be so useful to our armed forces during WWII. It’s a great irony that in just two or three generations of being in conflict with the United States, our warriors would go forward and play such a crucial role in the victory over this country’s enemies.”