The Battle of Verdun, Part Two

The Battle of Verdun began on February 21, 1916. The Germans opened with an exhaustive nine-hour artillery assault, launching more than one million shells into an area of roughly 25 miles. The relentless bombardment was followed by a ground invasion of three army corps. German soldiers employed flame throwers to ruthlessly clear the French trenches, scorching everything in their paths. Their advance continued for the next four days, driving back the French defenders and capturing Fort Douaumont, which was the centerpiece of Verdun's surrounding fortifications.

France called in reinforcements and, under the guidance of General Philippe Pétain, managed to slow the German offensive at the town of Douaumont. The extra time, not to mention heavy snowfall, allowed the French to summon 90,000 men and extensive ammunition into the Verdun area.

Because of the heavy shelling and the harsh weather, the battlefield became a morass of mud. It made it difficult for the Germans to move their heavy guns forward, meaning their troops advanced without effective cover. As a result, the farther they advanced, the more exposed they were to French artillery. Douaumont was finally captured in late March at the cost of four complete German regiments.

Over the next three months, the Germans captured several small villages along Verdun's flanks, culminating in an attack of Fort Souville on June 22. Despite using poison gas, the Germans were unable to take Souville. Exhausted and depleted themselves, the Germans were further weakened when a new Anglo-French offensive opened in the north, sapping German soldiers and resources. The French seized the advantage to launch counterattacks until the Germans were driven back to their original position, bringing an end to hostilities.

The Battle of Verdun lasted roughly 10 months and caused unimaginable carnage, with France suffering 498,000 casualties and Germany taking 437,000 casualties.

The Battle of Verdun, Part One

The Battle of Verdun is one of the longest, bloodiest conflicts in the history of warfare. It was also a pivotal battle of World War I, although no tactical or strategic advantage was gained by either side.

Unable to break through the French lines along the Western Front, Germany searched for a new tactic to try and topple the French defenses. German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn changed his focus from passing the French army to destroying it. He felt a war of attrition could bleed the French white, crushing their spirit and eventually leading to cracks in the front.

Falkenhayn selected the city of Verdun-sur-Meuse as his target. The choice was as much symbolic as strategic. Verdun had a storied history and was vital to the defense of Paris, as it guarded the northern entrance to the plains of Champagne. It was a source of French pride. There was simply no retreating from the position. Falkenhayn believed the French would defend it to their last man, and he was counting on it.

Verdun and its ring of fortifications actually extended into the German line. This meant it was surrounded on three sides by German forces. Falkenhayn hoped that turning his full attention to Verdun would prey upon France's national pride, luring regiment after regiment into a waiting death trap. Even if the city didn't fall, he was banking on inflicting overwhelming casualties, expecting a gruesome 2:1 kill rate. It was a ghastly ploy and one doomed for failure.

The Battle of Camp Wildcat

Kentucky remained neutral at the onset of the American Civil War, with volunteers joining both the Northern and Southern causes. Yet the Bluegrass State held a strategic significance to both sides. The Union wanted to prevent the Confederacy from invading Kentucky through Tennessee, thereby keeping the South from securing the entire Bluegrass Region and gaining easy access to the mighty Ohio River. For their part, the Confederacy wanted to keep the Union out of Kentucky to protect eastern Tennessee. With Kentucky up for grabs, it was only a matter of time before the two forces clashed.

In October of 1861, Confederate Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer led 5,400 Southern troops from Tennessee on a mission to seize control of central Kentucky. Zollicoffer's men pushed through the Cumberland Gap and established a position at the Cumberland Ford near present day Pineville, Kentucky.

Hearing of the Confederate aggression, the Union took swift action, deploying Col. Theophilous T. Garrard and a force of less than 1,000 men to Wildcat Mountain in an effort to defend Wilderness Road, which was the only means of passage through the heavily-wooded area. Upon reaching his destination and hearing reports of the approaching Confederate army, Garrard informed his superiors he'd be forced to retreat unless reinforcements were sent. Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas answered the plea for help, sending Brig. Gen. Albin F. Schoepf with a full brigade, raising the total Union forces to around 7,000.

Bolstered by the additional men, the Union troops fortified their position and held off Zollicoffer's charge, forcing the Confederates to retreat back to the Cumberland Ford. It was the first Civil War battle of regular forces on Kentucky soil. And thanks to the dense woodlands, casualties were kept to a minimum, with only four Union soldiers killed and 18 wounded, while the South suffered 11 deaths and 42 wounded.

The Battle of Wilson’s Creek

On August 10, 1861, Union forces clashed with the Missouri State Guard near Springfield, Missouri, marking the first battle of the American Civil War fought west of the Mississippi River. Known as the Battle of Wilson's Creek, it was a clear Confederate victory, giving the South control of southwestern Missouri.

Missouri started the War with armed neutrality, reserving the right to defend itself but choosing neither side in the conflict. President Abraham Lincoln forced the issue when he requested Missouri troops enter into the Federal army. Nathaniel Lyon, the Federal commander in Missouri at the time, accepted Lincoln's invitation, but he confronted harsh opposition from Governor Claiborne F. Jackson and his personal general, Sterling Price. The two sides were unable to resolve the matter peacefully, and Lyon and his men chased Jackson, Price, and their supporters across the state. Lyon eventually captured the capital of Jefferson City and held a special convention to decide secession. Missouri stayed in the Union.

Now a Brigadier General, Lyon and his Army of the West camped at Springfield and prepared for the Confederate response. Price and his Missouri State Guard were supported by Confederate Brig. Gen. Benjamin McCulloch. The two sides met on August 10 at Wilson's Creek.

Lyon divided his forces into two columns and withstood repeated Confederate charges. But while the lines held, Lyon fell, dying in battle. His replacement, Major Samuel D. Sturgis, ordered a retreat to Springfield. The Confederates, too battered to offer pursuit, held their ground and claimed victory.

Price's Missouri Guard pressed forward into northern Missouri, eventually seizing a portion of the state and establishing Jackson as the Governor of Confederate Missouri. But their triumphs did little to sway popular opinion, and Missouri remained in the Union for the rest of the War.

Battle of Fort Donelson

The Battle of Fort Donelson was a key strategic victory for the North during the American Civil War, but it's also the conflict that thrust Ulysses S. Grant into the national spotlight and hastened his rise to power and the ultimate Union triumph.

On February 6, 1862, Grant and U.S. Navy Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote captured Fort Henry, opening up the Tennessee River for Union forces. Only six days later, on February 12, Grant had advanced his men 12 miles overland to Fort Donelson in Stewart County, Tennessee. Taking Fort Donelson would give the Union control of the Cumberland River, creating an entry point for future invasions of the South.

After a series of brief assaults to get the measure of the Confederate defenses, Foote led a naval assault on February 14, bombarding the Fort with artillery. But stiff opposition forced Foote to withdraw his gunboats.

Still surrounded by Union forces, Confederate Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd initiated a surprise attack in an attempt to create an escape route. At first, Floyd gained an advantage, but Grant, who was away from the battlefield when the conflict started, soon rallied his troops and drove the Confederates back to their original position within Fort Donelson. A day later, on February 16, the South surrendered, with 13,846 men killed, wounded, or captured.

As reward for the impressive win, Grant was given a promotion to major general. The dominating performance also earned him the nickname "Unconditional Surrender." Ulysses S. Grant had arrived. And the Civil War would never be the same.

Battle of Chickamauga

Chickamuaga, located in northwest Georgia and just south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, was the site for one of the worst Union defeats of the Civil War. The loss brought an end to the North's Chickamauga Campaign, which was a planned offensive through south-central Tennessee and northwestern Georgia.

Chattanooga was the true source for the conflict. Both the North and the South targeted Chattanooga as a pivotal strategic acquisition. Not only did the North see it as a door to invading Atlanta, Chattanooga was also a rail hub, a manufacturing center, and instrumental in banking and commerce due to its location on the Tennessee River.

Union Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans and his Army of the Cumberland had driven General Braxton Bragg and his Confederate Army of Tennessee across the state and into Chattanooga. Determined to capture the city, Rosencrans used clever diversionary tactics to cross the Tennessee River without opposition. Fearing he wouldn't be able to withstand the Union charge, Bragg withdrew his men from the city.

Little did Rosencrans realize that Bragg was merely repositioning, not retreating. Bragg's plan was to attack the three Union corps separately, thinking they were spread too far apart to support each other.

The ensuing battle was fought between September 18 and 20, 1863. The fighting was fierce and created confusion in the Union ranks. Rosencrans was led to believe there was a gap in his line, but when he moved troops to bridge the nonexistent gap, he actually created one. Confederate Maj. Gen. James Longstreet was quick to exploit the mistake, forcing nearly a third of the Union soldiers from the field.

Thanks to Longstreet's maneuver, the Confederacy claimed victory and halted the Union advance into Georgia. But the victory came at a steep price. All told, the two sides suffered nearly 35,000 casualties.

The Trebuchet

The most powerful and perhaps most feared medieval siege engine was the trebuchet. The weapon was used to smash and destroy walls or to throw projectiles such as stone over them. There are two types of trebuchets, the counterweight and traction trebuchet. The traction trebuchet was an earlier weapon and the word is usually associated with the counterweight version.

Made from wood, the trebuchet was invented in China around the 4th century B.C. and made its way to Europe by the 6th century A.D. The trebuchet was used in both the Christian and Muslim world around the Mediterranean in the twelfth century. It was capable of throwing up to three hundred pound projectiles at fortifications such as castles. Many types of projectiles were thrown, including stone and even diseased corpses flung over walls- an early form of biological warfare. The trebuchet was more powerful and accurate than other medieval catapults. The fearsome weapon was used until the 16th century when the use of gunpowder started taking hold.

The trebuchet launched by having a counterweight acting on a lever arm. The fulcrum of the lever is supported by a high frame. The counterweight is suspended from the short arm of the lever, with the sling being attached to the long arm of the lever. One end of the sling is captive, while the other is hooked to the long arm so that it will release when the arm and sling reach the best hurling angles. The device is energized when the long arm is lowered and raised by the weighted short arm. It is then locked into the charged state by a cocked trigger mechanism.

Charlemagne

Charlemagne – that name spoke during the 700s would have instilled fear into the hearts of all who spoke it. Brought to the throne and seated next to his brother at the young age of twenty-six, Charlemagne became the sole heir of the kingdom of the Franks. The barbaric ways of the Franks did not suit Charlemagne’s brilliant mind, and he vowed that he would return Europe to its former glory through conversion to the Christian faith, education, and proper language. Charlemagne had a tough challenge ahead of him as most of the European continent had turned to paganism. The world was amidst total chaos, but this king saw no fear in the eye of the enemy.

Continuing on with his earlier plan, in 772 he constructed what would be a thirty year military campaign with the sole purpose to restore the fallen Europe. When the year 800 came around, Charlemagne became the unrivalled ruler of Western Europe. At the time, Western Europe included modern day France, Switzerland, Belgium, and The Netherlands. In addition, he managed to take half of Italy, Germany, Austria, and Spain under his rule as well. Charlemagne built and ran a central government that presided over his territory and he managed to restore unity to the fallen Roman Empire. In fact, Charlemagne can be credited with helping to pave the way for modern day Europe.

Charlemagne was given a gold crown by Pope Leo III on Christmas day, 800, while kneeling in church. History dictates that the king was surprised by the gift, but historians argue that even the pope would not have chosen to surprise the somewhat temperamental king. As with many great military forefathers, Charlemagne prized knowledge and learning over any other sort of entertainment, which is why he chose to have scholars read to him during meals instead of watching a court jester perform. This king believed that those governing the state should be of learned mind and clever thought, and that those refusing or ignorant of the great scholars should have no place in government at all.
Though Charlemagne did many great things for Europe, during his crusades he forced conversion upon non Christian people, sometimes refusal to convert meant death or torture, but this was no uncommon during his day. King Charlemagne held a vast empire under his thumb, brought insight to a barbaric world, and executed brilliant military tactics for his day. It can hardly be disputed that he was amongst on of the most brilliant military minds to walk the earth

Peter the Great

Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov (Peter the Great) is closely associated with a military and political term that is widely used today – “westernization.” At the mere age of ten, Peter was chosen over his sickly brother to become Tsar of Russia, but as many opposed this choice of leadership, Peter saw many of his friends and family murdered in his name; historians believe that due to this early trauma, Peter’s future may have been permanently marred.

Peter strove to “modernize” Russia, which was brought on by the constant influence of his western advisors. In order to effectively change Russia, Peter attempted to make Russia a maritime power by reorganizing the country according to European standards. Peter so believed in Europe’s way of functioning that he imposed such things as taxes upon the Russian people. And in order to gain further oceanic routes, Peter sought to defeat the Ottoman Empire towards the south. As part of an agreement with Poland, Peter was made to wage war against the Crimean Khan. As part of his military tactics, Peter crafter the first Russian Navy base at Taganrog.

Although Peter’s plans were ambitious, no country could hope to take on the great Ottoman Empire and win, so Pete sought the help of other European countries. After France and Austria refused to aid in his cause, Peter sought truce with the Ottoman Empire until he decided to attack it again in 1711. However, Pete was less than prepared to attempt running even a small part of the Ottoman Empire and he was forced back to the Black Sea upon retreat.

Towards the end of his life, Peter attempt to reform Russia even further in order to conform to the “superior west” and he was given the title of “Emperor of All Russia.” Even the great must fall and Peter the Great fell to severe bladder infections coupled with gangrene at the age of fifty-two years old.

Today, many statues can be seen in and around Russia that reminds visitors and residents alike of all that Peter the Great accomplished in Russia’s name. Although some reject him, others admired him, but all will remember him as the boy who took to a throne in order to change and form a country all his own.

William the Conqueror

Tales of kings and queens are often surrounded by glorious battled stories, and William the Conqueror is certainly no exception to this rule. Storming into England in 1066, William was after one thing – his illegitimate claim to the English throne. William’s Norman army was successful over the reigning Anglo-Saxons and thus the Norman Conquest had begun.

When William introduced the Norman way of life to England’s fearful public, he brought with him new words to be added to the language, new modes of warfare, new ways of thinking, and changes in English law – most of which still exist today. While William forced the English to speak his native Norman French, he managed to drive away the established English aristocracy replacing their estates and prestige with Norman royalty.

William was anything but religious, as he chose to marry his first cousin (against the wishes of the church), which led him to attempt repentance by building St. Stephen’s church, but apparently this structure was not enough to save William from a saddle that was thrust deep into his stomach when he fell off of his horse.

William died at the age of fifty nine and was buried in the church that he founded near Caen, Normandy. Even after death, William was somewhat doomed as his sarcophagus did not seem properly measured. After careful prodding and some re-arranging – history dictates the exposed and foul smelling body of William was exposed in the chapel as well – William was properly buried at the time, but his body was dug up once again during the early 19th century. Poor William is now only left with one femur bone that exists inside of his rather hollow tomb, but he will still remain one of England’s most interesting kings and military minds.

William Sherman

Often remembered as “the first modern general,” General William Sherman was a general in the United States Army during the Civil War. Sherman assisted the great Ulysses S. Grant in breaching the Confederate stronghold on the Vicksburg and Mississippi River. Eventually, Sherman was appointed “Union Commander” and led his troops in the capture of Atlanta, Georgia. Sherman was successful in convincing the Confederate armies to surrender on 1865, and he is remembered for his military skill and practical genius.

Sherman is best known for his “scorched earth” tactics, which he borrowed from the Chinese military. In order to operate a scorched earth attack, invaders must destroy anything that could be of use to opponents. This complete desecration includes the annihilation of crops, food stocks, shelter, transportation, communication, and industrial resources, literally, scorching the earth. Post war, Sherman grew quickly tired of fighting and wrote

"I confess, without shame, that I am sick and tired of fighting – its glory is all moonshine... it is only those that have never heard a shot, never heard the shriek and groans of the wounded and lacerated ... that cry aloud for more blood, more vengeance, more desolation."

Although the Civil War marked Sherman’s beginning as a General and a great war tactician, he also played a major part in the Indian Wars, which led the population to pressure Sherman into running for president. But, being a fighter at heart, Sherman did not want to become involved in American politics, and he eventually withdrew from the public eye altogether. General William Sherman died in his home on February 19, 1891 at the age of seventy-one and he is buried in Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis.

Catherine the Great

Sometimes great wars are filled with fearless warriors waging battle against all odds, but sometimes the true art of war comes from the great mind of a cherished philosopher, as is the case of Catherine the Great. Catherine the Great will forever be linked to military history due to the large advancements during her reign that led Russia to become one of the greater powers during the 1700s.

Catherine succeeded in expanding Russia’s borders to encompass New Russia, Crimea, Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Courland. She did this by defeating the seemingly undefeatable Ottoman Empire and Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. When Catherine’s reign was over, Russia had been extended over 200,000 miles – quite a large leap for any country. Russia gained so much ground during her reign that the Russian Empire became the foremost power throughout south-eastern Europe.

Many military leaders throughout the world watched with stunned eye as Catherine took on the great Ottoman Empire. Her moves were always strategic, and a great example of her mighty mind was the Battle of Chesma which took place in order to gain Russia access to the Black Sea, a crucial trade route. Through this gain, the Russian Empire was able to establish various new cities that gave Russia its vast power. When the Ottomans attempted to retaliate against Catherine’s Russia, they were devastatingly outnumbered and defeated.

Catherine led Russia to become an important mediator between countries, and she always acted the part of the pacifist politician when deciding upon military strategy. Later in her life, Catherine largely assisted the partitions of Poland and became known as the “philosopher on the throne.” Catherine was largely aware of her social image and wished to let the rest of the world know of her kind heart and generous political ambitions – even though to many people inside of her Russia believed her to be a tyrant. In the end, Catherine the great philosopher died alone from a stroke, although – as with any great military leader – there is much speculation as to the actual cause of her death. Catherine the Great will always be remembered for her love of the arts, her great military strategies, and her help in allowing Russia to realize its full capabilities.

Sitting Bull

Long before the United States of America was fully developed, the Lakota Nation ruled the lands. Although most Americans know of the native people, few know the story of Sitting Bull, one of the most influential Native American military leaders in history. Sitting Bull’s personality characteristics were known to his parents from his birth when he was named “Tatanka-lyotanka” literally meaning “buffalo-bull-sit-down,” later this name was translated into English to mean “sitting bull.” Bull-like in his attitude and temperament, Sitting Bull was elected to lead the Lakota nation against the white man when he refused to allow the white man to drive his people from their native lands.

Sitting Bull attempted to reason with the white man by remaining, by trade, a peaceful medicine man. But the white man was simply not interested in negotiations, and rather than trade fairly and peacefully with the Lakotas, the Native Americans were tricked again and again. Fed up of the ways in which the white man played an unequal military game, Sitting Bull decided to wage war against his oppressors.

Sitting Bull’s main opponent was Confederate General Custer. Custer was largely known across the land as leading the white man on successful attacks against the Lakota and other tribes. Although the Native Americans also knew of Custer’s battles their opinion of the man was less than honorable. Custer had reigned terror across the native lands and only gained ground after murdering countless women and children, burning towns, and using heavy artillery that the Native Americans could not fight against.

When Custer decided to attack the Indian tribes at Little Big Horn, Sitting Bull was ready. The great Indian leader had managed to gather more than 3,000 Native Americans that would willing fight for their land. Custer was less than prepared for Sitting Bull’s carefully planned counter attack, and his men were defeated. The Indian tribes managed to wipe out all of the troops as well as Custer himself, which did not sit so well with the rest of the Americans. Eventually, the US army retaliated bringing thousands of cavalrymen and artillery into Little Big Horn, eventually causing many of the Lakota to surrender. However, Sitting Bull refused to give up his fight, and instead led his tribe towards the Canadian border where they remained in exile. Once again offering peace, Sitting Bull eventually surrendered to American troops on July 19th, 1881.

Upon being released, Sitting Bull made a surprising change in his career path and joined “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show” where he made a decent amount of money before he quit the show to return to his people. In a strange twist of fate, Sitting Bull was mistakenly killed by his own people in 1890, and his remains rest in South Dakota where he is still remembered as being a fearless war hero.

Hannibal

Long before the world became associated with the cinematic Hannibal Lector, a military leader named Hamilcar Barca was helping to shape Carthage (modern day Tunisia). Nicknamed “Hannibal” for short, this military commander lived during the years 247 BC – 183 BC, and is currently known to all that study military strategy as one of the best tactical thinkers throughout history.

One of the most infamous military depictions in history is the image of massive elephants marching into the somewhat mystified west from far away lands. This image was more than reality for those involved in The Second Punic War when Hannibal marched his army of war elephants from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps all the way to Northern Italy. Hannibal was successful at driving back Roman forces throughout many battles such as the battled of Trebia, Tasimene, and Cannae. Hannibal was such a fierce military leader that Capua (second largest city in Rome) decided to join Hannibal and defect from Rome.

Although Hannibal effectively destroyed many Roman warriors, he was unable to breach the mighty walls of Rome itself, and his army merely stayed just outside of Rome’s gates for more than a decade. However, his persistence was futile as he never reached the city inside of Rome’s walls. Rome was known as one of the greatest empires on earth, and they did not gain this title from losing battles. Instead, the Roman army regrouped and drove Hannibal from Rome forcing him to return to Carthage. Eventually exiled, Hannibal remained attached to military training by taking over the post of military advisor to Antiochus III. Once again, Hannibal attempted to attack Rome with Antiochus’ army, but he was once again defeated. Upon his second defeat, Hannibal fled to the Birhynian court.

Although he was unable to penetrate Roman guards, those that led Rome watched with careful eye as Hannibal executed various strategies that impressed the Romans. Later, the Romans learned from Hannibal and adopted many of his theories that pertained to the battlefield. Famous military leaders such as Napoleon Bonaparte knew of Hannibal as a “gifted strategist,” which led Hannibal to be listed as the “father of strategy” amongst military leaders.

Julius Caesar

The life of Julius Caesar could fill the pages of many books, and still never be able to grasp at the vast imagination and political ease that this ruler possessed. The relics of Caesar’s reign that still remain in the city of Rome, Italy, will only begin to give a spectator some clue as to the height of this man’s vision. Massive buildings that seem to reach the heavens and columns built of sheer stone still exist today – thousands of years after Caesar roamed the earth. His cities are carefully planned, his buildings were meant to appeal to the Gods, and his demeanor is still carried in the hearts of all Romans. Julius Caesar represents the epitome of military and political brilliance.

It cannot be argued that Caesar is one of the most recognizable and prominent figures in all of history, and this is due largely in part to his incredible restructuring of the great Roman Empire. Caesar single handedly turned the Roman Republic into what is now know as the Roman Empire, but he was always a politician at heart.

Throughout history, the most successful military and government leaders have possessed a great charismatic charm, and Caesar may be said to lead them all in this manner. Caesar was a strong believer in the “poulares tradition” – a way of politicking that always favored the people – which caused him to form the never before seen “triumvirate” – literally meaning “of three men” -- with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus. However, Caesar’s optimistic attitude that sought to combine the powers and minds of various leaders was not supported by the “optimates.”

In order to understand Caesar’s great rise to power and large downfall, the term “optimates” must be further explained. Caesar and his allies were strong supporters of the people. They favored public assemblies, listened and acted upon the populous opinion, and held large meetings in order to hear what the people had to say on basic governmental operations. The optimates strongly opposed this line of thinking and wished to keep political powers within the government, regardless of public opinion. The optimates felt that the senate should have ultimate power, and they believe that individual generals would eventually use the tribunate and assemblies in order to overpower the senate – something that prominent and wealthy senate members did not want. Caesar’s main opponent was Cicero, a strong defend of the optimate stance.

As Caesar’s reign grew and more land was conquered, he was chosen as “dictator for life,” a title highly coveted by many jealous friends. This led to the infamous assassination of Caesar by his close friend Marcus Junius Brutus on the Ides of March (the fifteenth of March, the day that Caesar was murdered). Perhaps this little event on the pages of history incited the saying “keep your friends close, but your enemies closer,” as every politician can learn from Caesar’s fatal mistake. Although Caesar was gone, his kindness and support of the people was never forgotten. The Roman Senate name Caesar one of the Roman Deities two years after his death, which immortalized the great leader forever.

Sun Tzu

It is one thing to be remembered throughout history as a great general, a fierce warrior, and a brilliant strategist, but it is another thing altogether when nearly every military leader from 496 BC onwards has read your military strategy text and used it to wage their own wars. Of course, the only man who achieved such as honor is the same man that has been named “Master Sun” – Sun Tzu.

Not only is Sun Tzu accredited with being one of the most brilliant military thinkers to step foot on the face of the earth, he is also considered one of the fore founders of International Relations Theory. Sun Tzu’s text “The Art of War” (originally titled “Sun Tzu”) is now in wide circulation and is one of the most widely read texts every written about the calculated “dance” that is war itself. However, upon delving into Sun Tzu’s past, it is no surprise that he was more of a thinker than he was a blood thirsty warrior, since he grew up surrounded by the great logic of Confucius himself, and was most likely taught by the great philosopher upon many occasions.

Sun Tzu was the equivalent of today’s “military consultant,” and he was hired by King Helu of Wu in order to serve as a general in the Chinese military. When Sun Tzu took up the position of general in Wu’s army, the kingdom of Wu went from a chaotic mess to an organized state that became the reigning power in China. Wu was only able to obtain this prestigious position after the conquering of Chu (the most powerful state at the time), which was captured under Sun Tzu’s direction and leadership.

Although Sun Tzu’s mind was seemingly fated for military strategy, the man behind the tactical genius wanted nothing more than to be left alone in a quiet meditative state. Perhaps this is why Sun Tzu went into hiding once the state of Chu was won – he simply wanted to seek peace. Although most military minds are driven by the need to battle and conquer, Sun Tzu never truly accepted his military fate, which may be the reason why he is so admired today.

Atilla the Hun

Few names throughout history have as much awe and fear behind them as Atilla the Hun (406 – 453 BC). When the world was in the midst of formation, great kings and warriors ruled the lands seeking to conquer all that they could in a fight against time. The rule in these early days of warfare was to attack before being attacked, and seize before an enemy could seize first. The meant that the lands were chaotic and all areas of the world were consistently changing ruling hands.

Atilla the Hun was the “khan” (leader/king) of the Hunnic Empire, and his name was known across the world as a king to be reckoned with. The Hunnic Empire included modern day Germany, the Ural River (Russia and Kazakhstan), the Danube River, and the Baltic Sea. Atilla the Hun was known for his brutal invasions and military genius, as he invaded the Balkans twice, stormed Gaul (France), and wound up in Orleans (France) where he faced defeat at the Battle of Chalons.

Although Atilla wished to conquer Constantinople and Rome, he failed in this task, but he is still remembered throughout Europe for his reign of severe cruelty. However, some historians believe that many accounts of Atilla the Hun were largely untrue, and that his own reign may have been confused with the terror that was spread by other warlords like Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Although his tactics may have been less that fair, Atilla the Hun is still a large inspiration to many modern military leaders and historians alike.

Xerxes the Great

It used to mean that holding the title of “king” or ruler” meant planning and fighting great wars. Many ancient Kings were also the best warriors of their day due to extensive training of the mind coupled with intensive military training and Xerxes the Great (485BC – 465BC) was no exception to this rule.

The son of Darius (King of Persia), Xerxes had a mission to fulfill from birth, which included seeking revenge on the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians – not an easy burden to bear. Xerxes began planning his strategy of attack against these Greek city-states in 483 BC. He began by digging a channel that went underneath Mount Athos, storing his needed supplies around Thrace. In order to carry out his plan of attack, Xerxes had to succeed in building a bridge that crossed the sea of Hellespont. After deciding to use papyrus and flax to build his first bridge, not surprisingly, this bridge was quickly blow into the water when a storm arose. Determined to continue his original plan, Xerxes ordered his men to whip the straight itself over three hundred times in order to gain cooperation from the gods – seemingly, they were listening. His second bridge was successful, and Xerxes managed to reach neighboring Carthage in order to form a great army against the Greeks.

Xerxes was successful in his initial attacks against the Greeks, and gained the support of many Greek states including Thessaly, Thebes, and Argos. However, Xerxes hit a snag when he battled with legendary King Leonidas and the mighty Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae. Unfortunately, Leonidas and his fearless warriors were small in number compared to the thousands of troops that Xerxes had assembled.

Xerxes went on to conquer Athens and Sparta, driving the Greeks to the Saronic Gulf. Eventually, the Greeks were victorious against Xerxes’ troops and the Persians lost the battle of Mycale, which forced them to return to their home. Xerxes met a cruel fate when he was murdered by his own “vizier” (political advisor).

Alexander the Great

Somewhere between myth and legend lays the blazing trail of the warrior Alexander the Great. It is said that Alexander was born not of his earthly father Philip II (King of Macedon), but of the god Zeus himself. Alexander’s birth was marked by ancient oracle from the beginning who believed that Alexander would grow to be a great warrior raised under the sign of the lion. As the ancient Greeks placed much of their belief in the oracle, King Philip began to grow weary of both Alexander and his mother (for sleeping with the Gods). However, Philip made sure that Alexander was taught by none other than Aristotle himself who told the young boy of rhetoric, literature, and philosophy, and it is said that Alexander carried a copy of the Iliad with him wherever he went. After Alexander’s father married his fifth wife, Cleopatra Eurydice, Alexander’s true identity was questioned (as his birth mother was not a true Macedonian) and the young boy, then sixteen, fled the kingdom with his mother by his side.

Half fearing his son, and half missing him, Philip reconciled their relationship and Alexander returned to his homeland. Shortly thereafter, King Philip was assassinated and Alexander was named King of Macedon. Alexander led his legendary army toward Persia, where the cities of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis surrendered to his army. However, Alexander wanted to conquer King Darius, who had fled to Media. But before Alexander could trace the Persian King, Darius’ own soldiers murdered him and declared Alexander the King of Asia. After many more battles, deaths of close friends and lovers, and a continual chase for glory, Alexander had conquered a vast piece of land that stretched from the Ionian Sea all the way to Northern India.

Alexander had planned to combine Asia and Europe in order to create one, unified, country with Babylon as its capitol city. In order to prove his sincerity, Alexander married a Persian princess. Additionally, he made sure to put prominent officers and soldiers all over his empire from various countries and armies. His plans even went so far as to create a uniform currency, to introduce Greek culture and laws into Asia, and demand that all provinces worship him in the manner of any other God.

Some say Alexander’s tenacity got the best of him when he became fatally ill while in Babylonia. Though there are various speculations as to what, exactly, killed him, Alexander left no successor to his great empire. Eventually, the empire that he had fought so hard to unite, split in two when no heir to his throne was named. Whether you believe in the mythical aspects of Alexander the Great, or simply admire his conquering abilities, his name and conquests will live on in infamy.

Napoleon

A word of French history can hardly be spoken without the acknowledgement of Napoleon Bonaparte. Those that visit Paris today will find this great ruler’s remains resting in a marble tomb inside of the Dome Church. And even Napoleon’s tomb tells a great story as it is surrounded by various inscriptions relating to the infamous victories of the Empire, but Napoleon’s military history did not begin with his tomb, rather this man’s legend began in 1769 on the day that he was born.

As infamous as Napoleon’s military conquests are, perhaps just as popular are the speculations and tales surrounding his height. Contrary to popular belief, Napoleon was not a short man in stature. Evidence has recently been discovered that attempt to set this record straight. Some historians argue that upon death, Napoleon was measured using the traditional French unit, which would have placed his height around 5ft. 2 French units, however if correctly adapted this small size turns into 5ft. 6 in Imperial units. This means, that Napoleon would have been around 5’ 6” – a perfectly respectable height for his time. Of course, there are opposing views which state that Napoleon would not have been measured by French units since he was under British control at the time of his death an would have been measured with a British yardstick – putting his height back to 5’ 2”. Whatever his height may have been, this man’s legend is anything but a tall tale.

A lesser known fact about Napoleon is that he wasn’t born into a long line of French aristocrats. In fact, Napoleon’s family came from Corsica, which (one year prior to Napoleon’s birth) was an island belonging to Italy. Napoleon Bonaparte, was actually born “Napoleone Buonaparte,” but in order to sound less Italian and more French, the conscientious rule changed his name to the commonly known Napoleon Bonaparte. Although this may have left a sour taste in the mouth’s of Italians everywhere, Napoleon had a good reason for this change in character. Shortly after changing his name, Napoleon is quoted as saying "I was born when my country was dying. Thirty thousand Frenchmen disgorged upon our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in a sea of blood; such was the hateful spectacle that offended my infant eyes." Although he may not have been born of French blood, he was certainly born of noble blood. The Buonapartes were part of the Italian nobility hailing from Tuscany. Eventually, Napoleon’s family moved to Corsica, where the legendary leader was born.

Immediately after his graduation, Napoleon was commissioned as a second lieutenant in La Fére regiment at the age of sixteen. Eventually, he was appointed artillery commander in the French army, which was revolting against the republican government. Napoleon’s infamy grew from an incident in 1795 when he managed to take over various artillery pieces and used them to fight off attackers. Not being a modest man, Napoleon is noted as stating that he managed to defeat the enemy with a “whiff of grapeshot” (type of ammunition used for cannons). This statement along with his tactics gained Napoleon great status amongst his countrymen. Napoleon went on to fight and win numerous battles throughout the Europe and Asia, all marked with infamous sayings from the fearless leader himself such as "I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning." However, Napoleon could always back up his boasts with intensive knowledge of all military facets and the bravery to use alongside his brilliant tactics.

As all brilliant leaders must fall, so would Napoleon. After his rule as Emperor of France, Napoleon was later exiled by the British to live on the island of Saint Helena. Not unlike many of the “facts” surrounding Bonaparte, his death is once again a matter of dispute. Some historians believe that he died of stomach cancer – stomach cancer was listed on Napoleon’s death certificate at the time – but some believe that he was poisoned with the use of arsenic. Both legend and truth seem to surround this military mastermind, and although history often seems to be steeped in fact, we are reminded that “history is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon.”

Genghis Khan

Almost everyone has heard of the name “Genghis Khan,” but few know of this man’s impressive military history and conquering background. Although most countries (including Asia, the Middle East, and Europe) view this man’s acts as a ruthless reign of terror, he is also much admired in Mongolia. In fact, not only is this man a well known and well loved icon in Mongolia, he is known as the founding father of the Mongol nation – a title that is hard to beat.

Genghis Khan (né Temujin) was born into a nomadic tribe called the Borjigin, and as his father was a chieftain, Temujin was considered to be of noble blood. One fateful night, Temujin’s father was poisoned, which left the young Khan with his mother and siblings alone to survive amidst poor conditions. Temujin’s thirst for battle was discovered at the age of thirteen when he is believed to have murdered his brother when a fight ensued over a hunt the two siblings had been on. Legend seems to have lit this young boy’s path from that point on as he manage to escape captors, live in the worst kind of poverty, and successfully unite the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Uyghurs, Keraits, and Tatars.

As the warriors that surrounded him began to recognize his unique talent for conflict management and unheard of war tactics, Temujin was baptized “Khan” (meaning “military leader”) by the Kurultai (a wise elder group of Mongol Chiefs). Once he had earned this prestigious title, he went on to conquer the Western Xia Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty, the Kara-Khitan Khanate, the Khwarezmid Empire, Transoxiana and Persia.

The death of this great warrior is relatively unknown. Legend has it that a Tangut princess castrated Ganghis Khan with a knife, which left him bleeding and helpless. Although, two other stories probably relate the truth a bit better. Some believe that Genghis Khan simply died of old age and fatigue (he had been waging battles since his childhood), or that he was killed by the Tanguts (another likely possibility). Either way, the mere mention of Genghis Khan, even today, holds a lot of meaning for military buffs and Mongolians alike. Whether his reign was based on blood lust, or simply the love of his people is uncertain, but his legend is sure to live in infamy forever.

Saladin

The story of the military leader and sultan, Saladin, could very well come from the pages of a modern day newspaper. Saladin was a great Muslim fighter and general, ruling the land of what is now present day Iraq. He began his military training directly after he was taught theology in the Sunni form – first God, then country – and became “vizier” (high ranking political minister) in 1169. This was not an easy title to bear, for Saladin held this high political office during the time when Egypt needed great defending against the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. When the Shi’ite Egyptian caliph passed away, Saladin was granted the title of ruler of Egypt, which he took to whole heartedly.

Saladin's first priority within this new Egypt was to restructure both military and economic resources, which he knew would allow the Egyptian world to be great once again. He felt that in order to restore education and religion to the land, he must regain the Muslim world’s former territory. Therefore, his military prowess was aimed at the Crusaders, as he sought to restore Sunnism in Egypt. Saladin was unsuccessful in these attempts and in 1178 a truce was declared between the Muslims and the Christians, but Saladin now had other objectives in mind.

Saladin believed that Jerusalem was rightfully a Muslim state, and he set out to reclaim it from the Jewish faith. He is quoted as saying “I think that when God grants me victory over the rest of Palestine I shall divide my territories, make a will stating my wishes ... so as to free the earth of anyone who does not believe in God, or die in the attempt.” He recaptured Jerusalem on October 2, 1187. As history dictates, Palestine – in the eyes of Saladin – was a Muslim territory, which was snatched from Muslim hands by the Israeli’s. Therefore, it is not surprising that present day Palestinians use the memory and wisdom of Saladin as a sort of muse in their struggle against the Israelis. This religious battle has been ensuing for many decades, though it has yet to see an end in sight.

Mao Zedong

Many people within the Western world cringe when the hear the name “Mao,” or the term “communism” mentioned, but in China, Mao and his military tactics (dubbed “Maoism”) are regarded in high esteem. Many people within China believe that Mao’s tactics were more than necessary in order to help the Chinese population through The War of Resistance and the Civil War. Because Mao, his tactics, terms surrounding communism, and the situation within China during the 20th century are enough to complete volumes of text, it is necessary that this article be broken down into two main categories. The first being the man (Mao) himself, the second being a brief overview of his political ideas.

Mao Zedong was born into a peasant family on December 26, 1893 in Shaoshan, Hunan province. Though still part of the peasant class, his father was a relatively wealthy farmer, which enable him to send young Mao to school in order to gain an education. Mao began fighting at a young age when he joined the 1911 Revolution as a soldier, and once the Qing Dynasty had been defeated Mao returned to school in order to fulfill his thirst for knowledge. In fact, it was through various books picked up while in school that Mao first learned of Communism.

Something within the pages of communist theory excited Mao, and he continued to study the peasant population in relation to China, rather than study the aristocrats or founding father of China. At age twenty-seven, Mao attended the National Congress of the Communist Party of China, and a mere two years later Mao rose to be one of the five commissars of the party. From that point on, Mao rose to high ranks within the party and eventually became the Propaganda Director of the Kuomintang – a high political title.

Although the sources for Mao’s original theory of “violent revolution” are not entirely clear, it is highly believed that he was greatly inspired by the Russian revolution along with other Chinese literary texts. Mao knew that in order to free the people he must undermine imperialism and feudalism within China. He did not believe that the Nationalists were a strong enough party to lead such a revolution, and later came to the conclusion that only a proletariat under communist supervision would be successful in overthrowing the existing government. Mao tried his hand at activating the labor parties against the government, but when these small struggles were easily quashed, he realized that only the peasant population were enough in number and strength to fight the government. Mao was successful in teaching the peasants Marxism, and gained great popularity among the peasant class.
After many battles fought, The People’s Republic of China was established on October 1, 1949, and Mao had become “Chairman Mao” of the Republic. Mao did many things that helped China gain its independence from the rest of the Western world, including allowing China to operate independently as an agricultural power; snatching land from wealthy landlords in order to give it to the people; and instilling a great camaraderie and pride amongst the Chinese people. Mao Zedong passed away at the age of eighty-two of what is commonly known today as Lou Gehrig’s disease. His body rests at the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong in China, and is still a place of great honor for many Chinese people.

Douglas McArthur

Many American soldiers and generals alike received the prestigious Medal of Honor during World War II, but none as quite as infamous as General Douglas McArthur. McArthur was Chief of Staff during the 1930s and was the brains behind the occupation of Japan in 1945. McArthur did not understand the meaning of the word “defeat,” and due to his “In war, there is no substitute for victory” attitude, he was removed from office by President Harry S. Truman for refusing to follow orders. McArthur was a commander in his own right, and had he been alive during the settling of the West, he would have conquered many unclaimed territories – some say that McArthur was simply born during the wrong era.

Although his fearless attitude was proven time and again during World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, his mark on the pages of history was made when he became one of five men to achieve the status of General of the Army. MacArthur was well known during World War II for his vast involvement in Japanese air strike, and his military tactic called “island hopping,” which proved to be a brilliant strategy at the time. MacArthur realized that rather than landing US planes on Japanese islands that were heavily fortified, he would simply hop on and off of islands that were vulnerable. This allowed him to avoid Japanese troops on other, larger, islands. This tactic also allowed him to have an advantage over the unsuspecting Japanese, reducing the number of American causalities.

In 1951, MacArthur said a public “goodbye” to the people of the United States by stating "Old soldiers never die; they just fade away." "And like the old soldier of that ballad, I now close my military career and just fade away — an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty. Good-bye." Many believed that MacArthur would go on to run for the presidency, but this general wasn’t interested in the boring life of politics after he had fought in many wars – and won. However, MacArthur did remain an unofficial wartime advisor to many presidents after World War II, as they often sought his expert opinion and advice when it came to difficult situations. MacArthur died a quiet death near to his wife at their penthouse home of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel. If you wish to visit this great war hero, he and his wife are entombed together in Norfolk, Virginia.

Winfield Scott

How would you like to be remembered throughout history as “Old Fuss and Feathers?” Well, if you were Winfield Scott (US Army General), you might not mind the affectionately given nickname so much. Although Scott is best know for his term as an army general, he was also a diplomat and presidential candidate throughout his lifetime (1786 – 1866). Scott literally lived out his life on the battlefield as he served as a general for a longer amount of time than any other man in American history – a whopping fifty year service. Scott saw and commanded the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, the Black Hawk War, the Second Seminole War, and the American Civil War.

Scott was know for his ability to imagine a battle field from the confines of his mind and effectively launch his preconceived mission when it came time for his troops to act. After the Mexican War, Scott was held in high esteem and was granted the title of Governor of Mexico City. Perhaps this is why the Whig Party sought to use Scott as a presidential candidate over their own incumbent Milliard Filmore. Unfortunately, Scott lost the election to Pierce, but his public still adored his tough attitude and confident demeanor. Throughout his military career, Scott drew upon his extensive education and introduced great war tactics that were used by such epic conquerors as Napoleon Bonaparte. In fact, Scott himself translated various Napoleonic manuals into English in order to use Napoleon’s war tactics within the American militia.

Although Scott devised many of the plans – including the infamous “Anaconda plan” – used within the American Civil War, his health was ailing and he was unable to effectively execute his plans. However, Scott did live long enough to see the end of the civil war and watch as his plans were printed in newspapers and spread amongst the general public. Winfield Scott died in West Point, New York, and is fittingly buried in the West Point Cemetery. Scott’s own book on American war tactics entitled “Infantry Tactics, or, Rules for the Exercise and Maneuver of the United States Infantry” was largely used as a drill manual within the U.S. army for many years. Today, Scott is remembered for his lengthy term within the army and his astonishing strategies that enabled him to successfully command the army for so many years.

Richard I

It is interesting to note that while many kings and sultans of old joined their troops amidst the battle fields, today’s military heroes and leaders are strictly of the military kind – they are not rulers of a state or kings of a country. Perhaps this is largely due to the vulnerability that many kings and rulers suffered while participating in battled, but there is a certain glory – and perhaps that is why these leaders have been remembered throughout time – in telling the tale of a king who was more than the ruler of a country.

King Richard I was, and is to this day, a living legend. Known in story books and in history books alike as “Richard the Lionhearted” or “Coeur de Lion”, Richard hardly spent a day within his own kingdom. In fact, it would have been nearly impossible for King Richard to spend the majority of his time in either England or France, since both countries were under his reign. Although, if he could not be found at home in either England or France, King Richard could often be found on the battle field fighting during the time of the Third Crusade.

Richard’s reign was off to a shaky start as he wished to reflect the image of a true Crusader by banning all women and Jewish people from his crowning ceremony. Upon attempting to bring the new king gifts, many Jews were tossed from Richard’s kingdom. This caused a rumor to spread amidst the streets of London that the new king wished death for all Jews. Believing that they were acting on the orders of their new king, the townspeople commenced seeking out and annihilating many Jewish people that lived in London at the time. King Richard attempted to put a stop to these beatings by hanging those that had participated in the Jewish persecution, but thereafter the riots hardly ceased.

King Richard’s military expeditions included an attempt at taking over Sicily and Cyprus with many other battled in between. While on his escapade (and disguised as a peasant), he was captured and handed over to Henry VI, of the Holy Roman Empire. Rome insisted that King Richard’s family pay a large ransom, which was gained by taxing the people and taking all valuable items from the clergy. Eventually, Richard was released on February 4th, 1194.

All of Richard’s battles and wars were not fought unnoticed, for it was a mere boy seeking vengeance upon the king’s head (Richard had killed his family) that shot the king with an arrow and managed to kill him by way of gangrene. Always the kind hearted, King Richard forgave the child on his death bed and ordered him to be set free. King Richard died on April 6, 1199 alongside his mother, however his wish for the boy that shot him to go free proved to be futile as the boy was caught, flayed alive, and hanged.

Chiang Kai-Shek

As much as Mao Zedong was a supporter of Chinese communism, Chiang Kai-Shek was against the formation of the people and fought against Mao and his communist ideals. Chiang Kai-Shek was a Chinese military and political leader who attempted to lead China away from warlords, and steer the people out of the hands of communism. Shek’s first attempt to unify China was successful, however he was unable to defeat Mao’s communist ideals and was forced to flee to Taiwan where he remained President of the Republic of China until the day he died.

Throughout military history it is interesting to compare military leaders and their main opponents, as they usually come from extremely differing backgrounds. In the case of Chiang Kai-Shek and Mao Zedong, their early beginnings could not be more dissimilar. While Mao was raised as a peasant boy, Shek was brought up in an upper middle class family of salt merchants. And while both young men had an initial military training, Shek went on to study only military tactics, while Mao was more interested in many different subjects from around the world – perhaps these two main differences helped to shape both men’s future political careers..

Throughout Shek’s rise to power, the United States staunchly supported his cause, and China became one of the United States’ allied powers during the Pacific War. The United States viewed Shek’s strategies as both Christian and democratic, two key points of view that the US felt were very important to the reorganization of China. However, Shek’s true (and very undemocratic) intentions were largely shielded from the US government eye due to strong censorship within China and Shek’s own close ties to Time Magazine’s publisher Henry Luce. In fact, not only was Shek strongly opposed to Mao’s strategies during the war years, he was also opposed to the US strategies – largely unknown to the Roosevelt government. After many years of fighting and eventually admitting a devastating defeat to Mao’s communist China, Shek moved his government to Taipei, Taiwan where he resumed his duties as “president.”

At the age of eighty-seven, Shek died in Taiwan from a heart attack coupled with pneumonia. His descendant, Lucas Chiang still leads prayers in Taipei, Taiwan on his father’s death anniversary in order to remember Shek in a positive light. Upon his death, those on the island of Taiwan mourned their leader, but on the mainland Shek’s death produced little more than a front page newspaper headline. For many people Chiang Kai-Shek was a great leader, but for many more Mao Zedong would forever be the remembered favorite.

The Flying Tigers

In September of 1941 a group of men and women posing as tourists boarded ships to Burma in order to receive secret, aviation combat training. The group consisted mainly of personnel released from the US Army, Navy, and Marines who would become members of the American Volunteer Group (AVG). Their goal was to secretly provide military aide to China, who was engaged in war with Japan both prior to and during World War II. This operation was not made public since the US had not yet entered the war.

The group was assembled and trained by “renegade” general Claire Lee Chennault, a professional America aviator. One hundred members of the AVG got the chance to pilot the unique, P-40 War Hawk characterized by its distinctive red mouth and menacing white teeth. With an image like that, it’s no surprise they chose the name “fighting tigers.”

About two months after their arrival to Burma, the tigers were arranged into 3 squadrons: The “Adam and Eves,” The “Panda Bears,” and “Hell’s Angels.” The squadrons were then positioned at opposite ends of the Burma Road; a winding mountain passes stretching 1,130 Kilometers from Lashio, Burma to Kunming, China. The road was used to transport materials through the war.

The Tigers first engaged in combat on December 20, 1941, about two weeks after the Japan invaded Pearl Harbor and America joined the war. Over the course of seven months the tigers destroyed nearly 300 enemy aircrafts, losing roughly fifteen of their own men. The tigers had a significant impact on the course of WWII and regained some of America’s lost hope in the war against Japan.

The Battle of Stone River

In October of 1862, infuriated at his army's lack of aggression in dislodging the Confederacy from Tennessee, President Abraham Lincoln replaced Gen. Don Carlos Buell with Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans. Yet Rosecrans proved equally cautious in pursuing Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee, taking nearly two months to resupply and train his forces before chasing the enemy.

Rosecrans began marching his Army of the Cumberland towards Bragg's position in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on December 26, 1862. Only about half of Rosecrans' 81,000 men actually strode towards battle, with the rest left behind to protect his camp and supply chains. Confederate cavalry launched short, quick attacks along the way, causing the Union army several embarrassing and costly losses.

While Rosecrans held a slight advantage in manpower, roughly 45,000 to 38,000, Bragg and his army had been entrenched in Murfreesboro for a month and were ready for battle. The two sides engaged on December 31. Three days of brutally bloody fighting followed, resulting in the greatest combined percentage of casualties for any major Civil War battle. Nearly 24,000 men (29%) were either killed, taken prisoner, or went missing.

Bragg eventually relented and withdrew his forces, retreating to Tullahoma, Tennessee. Even though his predecessor lost his position for failing to hunt Bragg, Rosecrans did not offer pursuit. Instead, he occupied Murfreesboro and established a Union supply depot, fortifying it into what is known as "Fort Rosecrans." The modest triumph also served as a huge morale boost for the Union. President Lincoln personally commended Rosecrans on the hard-fought victory, saying the nation may not have been able to survive another defeat.

The Gatling Gun

The Gatling gun, one of the most destructive weapons in modern warfare, was actually created with the intention of saving lives.

American inventor Richard Gatling first constructed the fearsome weapon in 1861 as a response to the ongoing U.S. Civil War. Many soldiers of the time died of malnutrition. Gatling devised his gun to allow one solider to do the work of many, thereby allowing armies to be smaller and easier to feed and supply. It was also his hope that the weapon's sheer violence and the carnage it could inflict would put an end to warfare forever. Sadly, it only intensified the arms race, sending fellow inventors scurrying to discover more lethal killing machines.

The first Gatling gun consisted of six barrels mounted in a rotating cylinder and was powered by a hand crank. While it was reliable and easy to load, it weighed nearly 90 pounds, making it cumbersome and difficult to deploy in the heat of battle. Its unwieldy nature combined with the lack of a trigger mechanism convinced the U. S. government not to purchase the weapon for the Civil War. But Union General Benjamin Butler spent his own money to procure a dozen of the guns, although he barely had a chance to use them before the end of the war. Their brief appearance, however, shocked combatants on both sides with its devastating power.

It wasn't long before the Gatling gun was a fixture in armies across the globe. Modern technology has only increased the weapon's lethal potency, allowing it to fire upwards of 6,000 pounds per minute.