The Men of Apollo 1

On the memorial at Cape Canaveral, Florida dedicated to the astronauts of Apollo 1 the following words are inscribed: “They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind’s final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived.”.

High praise indeed for United States Air Force Lt. Colonels Virgil I. Grissom and Edward H. White and United States Navy Lt. Commander Roger B. Chaffee, the 3 men who died in the tragic fire onboard the capsule of Apollo 1 during a final training exercise in January 1967.

Perhaps an even greater testament to their courage and statement regarding how their ultimate sacrifice has helped to bring about the world of technology and spaceflight that we now live in is given by former NASA flight director Chris Kraft when he says that “I don’t think that we would have gotten to the moon in the ‘60s if we had not had the fire.”

Kraft believes that due to the loss of these 3 Americans a much greater emphasis on safety and a stronger commitment to fulfilling the mission of manned moon landings came about which eventually resulted in the successful July 1969 landing of the Eagle on the surface of the moon. As a sign of respect, each of the three has a crater on the moon named after them.

It seems ironic that by their deaths these American heroes actually accomplished far more than they could have had they not lost their lives in the doomed Apollo 1. Americans collectively got a tremendous sense of fulfillment and inspiration from the successful moon landings. It can be argued that the technological advances that we enjoy today, not only in making space flight safer but in everyday life, can be traced to the resolve that came from the horrendous outcome of that flawed test back in 1967.

The B-52 Stratofortress

In 1952 when the first of the 744 B-52s that would eventually be built and see service took off into the blue skies above the Boeing Aircraft Plant no one could have guessed that it would not only set several remarkable flight records but also become the longest serving aircraft design in the history of aviation.

The massive plane, its wingspan is 185 feet and its length nearly 160 feet, is still on America’s first line of national defense and continues to amaze engineers, crew members, and pretty much everyone else learning of its amazing service record and expected longevity.

Since the last models were built and delivered in 1962 most of the pilots and airmen manning these durable workhorses are younger than their planes are. Astonishingly, the United States Air Force plans to keep the existing B-52s in service until at least the year 2040 as a key component of national security. When the time finally does come to mothball the last B-52 the planes will have provided nearly 90 years of continuous service.

The first truly long range bomber with a maximum flight distance of more than 8,800 miles before requiring refueling, the B-52 is able to travel at nearly 600 miles per hour and deliver a payload of up to 70,000 pounds of bombs on its target. Wanting to expand the flight range even further, now common but at the time revolutionary, jet-to-jet refueling techniques were developed to keep the B-52 in the air for ever longer periods of time and to allow patrols over ever increasing distances.

With its phenomenal time-in-service it can be argued that the B-52 has been the most cost-effective investment ever made in the interest of war or national defense.

Spy in the Sky: The U-2

In August of 1955 intelligence gathering between nations was forever changed with the successful deployment of the first US developed U-2 reconnaissance plane.

The U-2’s radical design features, which allowed it to reach previously unattainable cruising altitudes of more than 70,000 feet (nearly 14 miles) above the earth, provided the United States with the capability of literally putting a camera eye-in-the-sky far above where any conventional anti-aircraft guns, fighter planes or missiles could reach it.

Coupled with the latest photographic lenses developed by Polaroid the U-2 was able to take amazingly clear (for that time) pictures with an incredible (again; for the time) resolution of just 2 ½ feet which effectively ended any Soviet hopes for secrecy regarding clandestine troop movements, military building projects, nuclear tests or other aggressive actions.

Hoping to avoid starting an all-out war with the Soviet Union should any of the U-2 “weather planes” or their pilots be captured and it then be proven that the United States military was openly violating Soviet airspace, it was determined that only “civilians” would be allowed to fly the spy planes. The CIA was technically the agency in charge of all missions; obviously reporting in full to the Armed Forces all of their findings; and all of the pilots were forced to resign their military commissions in order to be hired as a private pilot by the CIA.

This ploy turned out to be most effective in 1960 when a U-2 was brought down (there is still debate over exactly how the supposedly “undownable” plane was brought to ground) over Russian territory and the pilot captured. By claiming that the U-2 was actually a weather plane blown off-course the event eventually defused itself and armed conflict, which at the time would likely have led to the use of nuclear weapons, was avoided. Even though the ruse served its purpose, relations between the two superpowers continued to deteriorate until the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.

After more than 50 years of reliable service and uncountable upgrades along the way, it was announced in early 2006 that the existing fleet of U-2s would be permanently retired in favor of satellite technology.

The Cold War in Nevada

The Soviet Union’s successful detonation of an atomic device in 1949 solidified America’s commitment to developing a permanent nuclear proving ground facility within our own borders. Due to its remote, and at the time virtually inaccessible location, an area just 65 miles north of Las Vegas, Nevada was selected and named the Nevada Test Site.

The barren desert terrain looks as though it may be located be on another planet and was considered ideal for testing, recording, and measuring the power released when atoms are ripped apart as well as for monitoring the radioactive fallout generated by the nearly 1,000 nuclear explosions, both above and below ground, performed there between January 1951 and the Test Site’s final blast in September of 1992.

At various times the testing emphasis was placed on the effects of a nuclear blast on flesh, vehicles, buildings, and; in one particularly unpleasant experiment; on the retinas of eyes exposed to the brighter-than-the-sun mushroom cloud such explosions create.

While there is no doubt that the information learned from the testing was invaluable in keeping the USA ahead in the ensuing global arms race many still contend that the final human price has not been paid for that knowledge. By some estimates there have been at least 6,000 premature deaths directly attributable to thyroid cancer caused by the exposure to radiation that many military personnel, researchers, and the civilian population downwind from the tests experienced.

As the effects of radiation exposure became more fully known the Nevada Test Site became “Ground Zero” for many nuclear protests and demonstrations which eventually created so much negative publicity for the military and politicians that the facility was permanently closed.

Was the information gained worth the cost in dollars, resources, and lives? Only if the world remains forever free from the horror of an all-out nuclear war will be able to give a definite “Yes” answer to that question.

The B-17 Flying Fortress

The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was an American invention that changed the view of the World War II skies forever. Prior to the B-17, countries were dependant upon bombs dropped by men from hovering airplanes (such as the German Zeppelin). Earlier means of deploying bombs meant that the airplanes had to hover for a long period of time making them an easy enemy target. Additionally, early planes were not able to defend themselves against counter attacks and were virtually sitting ducks.

The B-17 could cruise along at speeds up to 200 mph, and each one was equipped with .50 caliber automatic weapons. A fast, well-equipped flying machine that could drop its own bombs and at the same time defend itself against anti-missile guns with automatic machine rifles was unheard of when the planes first entered the airspace. Five hundred thousand bombs were dropped over German troops and towns from the base of B-17 bombers at a range of up to 2,000 miles away during the length of the war. Largely unafraid of enemy firing, the B-17 flew during the daytime and was a rapid threat to the German occupation.

Throughout the war, the B-17 was only made stronger and was given a solid frame that made it virtually impenetrable to any sort of anti-aircraft weapon. Later editions included B-17s that were given more machine guns in order to ensure that bombs would be dropped effectively and that pilots would return home safely. These airplanes made sure that Nazi rivals were certain to hit their target every time.

The V-1 Flying Bomb

The German-developed V-1 flying bomb would be known today, though it was much less accurate, as a cruise missile. The bomb was the brainchild of two German engineers who sought to create a very simple flying instrument that would injure upon impact by detonating an explosive hidden within the shell. The first V-1 was constructed from sheet metal and wood, making it relatively cost effective. The basic principle to the V-1 was built upon the simple idea of a mini-airplane wrapped around a bomb, only much more aerodynamic. Nazi troops used the French and Dutch coasts to launch the bombs from an elevated level, which allowed the plane-like missile to rocket into the air at a rapid pace. The V-1s could operate from zero ground speed with the rhythm of a simple pulse jet engine, which beat fifty times per second. A simple device within the missile forced the bomb to land at a certain distance causing large amounts of destruction. These earlier missiles were not precise in their targets often landing amidst civilians or varying entirely off course.

These “buzz bombs” (as they were commonly called) posed a large problem for allied forces, who had not yet conceived such a device. Reaching elevation heights of up to 3,000 feet, the V-1 was an unreachable target for any anti-aircraft gun. Desperate for a method to knock the missiles out of the sky, allies developed an airplane called the “Tempest.” The main purpose of the Tempest was to try, literally, to knock the flying bomb out of the sky. When Nazi Germany fell, so did the launch pads and hide-outs that the Germans used to store their bombs, but their legacy lived on and these pioneering missiles were finely tuned over time. Today, cruise missiles can be filled with any sort of bomb or gas and are extremely accurate.

The Submachine Gun

Bombs flew over head, men peeked over trench lines and quickly shot at the enemy, and some men even ran across fields to attempt slaying their opponent via the sharp blade of their bayonet. Fighting tactics during World War I were less than effective and more than gruesome, but troops worked with the weapons that they had. Towards the end of World War I, along came the submachine gun and changed the way that battles were fought. Originally designed by Italy to aid its troops in trench warfare, the submachine gun was not an accurate weapon, but it was highly efficient. The introduction of this gun meant that men no longer had to run across enemy lines in hopes of wounding a foe. The submachine gun was a sure thing. Hundreds of bullets splattered the air eliminating anything that was in its path.

During World War II, the submachine gun was still regarded as a highly effective weapon. The gun was engineered to be lighter and to shoot even more rapidly than before. During the Second World War, Italy, Germany, and the United States were the only three countries that began to develop these guns in large quantities. Although perfect for trench wars, the submachine gun was not capable of long range power and could not be used to attack incoming airplanes. With the eventual advancement of arms came the advancement of armor, and as troops and military vehicles began to become more adequately protected, the submachine gun proved useless against the newer, heavier tanks, and the well equipped men.

88mm Anti-Aircraft Gun

The German-engineered 88mm anti-aircraft gun was Germany’s only means of attack against high-flying, fast-paced aircrafts during the Second World War. The gun was crafted by the same maker that fashioned most of Germany’s artillery, the Krupps Company. This gun was craftily engineered with a long muzzle that could be a deadly shot when tilted and aimed at the sky, and could cause equally devastating effects when shot at close range. Germany wasted no expense during World War II, and unlike other countries that were desperately trying to conserve funds and manufacture cheaper weapons, Germany mass produced its 88mm guns ensuring that no battle would go without the crucial anti-aircraft gun.

These progressive guns, like most of the weapons used during the world wars, were constantly being updated and bettered by German engineers. As enemy planes were able to fly higher, the guns also had to be able to reach a higher altitude in order to be effective. Various models of the 88mm gun were produced during the war. In an attempt to keep up with Germany’s lavish spending and quick ingenuity, allied countries had to think of ways to keep their aircrafts in the sky and avoid the looming threat that an anti-aircraft gun could be waiting on the ground to shoot them out of the air. Eventually, planes were developed that could fly higher than the 88mm gun could reach, but that posed another problem – accuracy. If planes flew too high, their targets would likely be missed. This called for highly skilled pilots, and German soldiers that were capable of swiftly manning the 88mm guns. Battle fields eventually became a constant game of hit or miss, as planes swooped down and Germans took aim, each hoping to catch the other off guard.

The STEN Gun

During World War II, Britain bought most of its submachine guns from the United States, which seemed to work out nicely for both countries at the beginning of the war. But as Britain began to come under heavy attack, many of its soldiers were killed and their weapons were taken by opposing armies. Suddenly, Britain was in a poor position, there weren’t enough guns coming in from the United States to replace the amount of guns that were rapidly disappearing from the military’s stock. In a panic, Britain’s Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, sought to devise a gun that could be swiftly manufactured and sent to fighting troops. The only problem was that Britain’s funds were also rapidly fading, this meant that Britain had to find a way to manufacture a gun that was both easy to assemble and cost effective. Engineers came up with the STEN gun, which was aptly named for the initials of its team of designers.

The STEN could be assembled in a mere five hours and was made from simple metal, which needed little welding in order to construct it. The thin, easy to assemble STEN guns were dropped from aircraft carriers to waiting ground troops who were badly in need of protection. Surprisingly, these close range guns were extremely effective and packed a deadly punch once they were delivered to infantry. In addition, the STENs were small and could be taken apart in order to conceal each piece of the gun underneath clothing or inside of backpacks, which was crucial for soldier survival and for efficiency.

Submarine Warfare

During the world wars, armies took to the seas and began to fight using boats that could submerge themselves fully in water. Known by their general term “submarines” each country had their own style of submarine, and more importantly, each country had their own way of navigating the sea bed. Almost every navy throughout the world had a fleet of submarines, though it wasn’t until the invention of a partly diesel, partly gas engine that submarines began to become useful and more efficient. The ability to both fight on top of the water and lurk upon the ocean floor meant that countries could now cover sea, land, and air – this was a huge breakthrough in the world of combat.

Germany had the largest fleet of submarines amongst all of the navies involved in World War II. But it wasn’t their numbers alone that gave the German “U-Boats,” the upper hand as far as naval combat went. Sticking to its strategic fighting style, Germany’s submarine attacks were specific, calculated, and effective. Acting as a scout, one U-Boat in a fleet of many sought out other enemy submarines that were hidden on the ocean floor. Rather than attack immediately, the U-Boat scout would send out signals to its comrades, and once the enemy boat was completely surrounded there was no chance of escape.

Although inter-submarine warfare was seemingly simple from a naval perspective, striking a submarine from the air was no easy feat. In fact, the first submarine ever to be spotted and attacked by air was a French submarine that was targeted by a Serbian pilot. Neither side had witnessed such accuracy before, but now the possibility of destroying submarines from the air was no longer such a far-fetched idea. Being able to utilize all of the earth’s elements meant that each military army was becoming stronger and more equal as the war advanced.

The T-10 Tank

Even the simple task of naming this Soviet-built World War II tank seems to have been a bit of a comical feat for Soviet engineers. Originally called the “KV-85,” it was named for Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov. The tank was later re-named to the “Losif Stalin Tank,” after Voroshilov “retired” from his political office. Later, in keeping with tradition after Stalin’s death, the tank found its permanent name: the “T-10.” Whatever confusion the naming of this tank caused, its purpose was clearly marked—to combat the German 88mm anti-aircraft guns during the war. This tank was solidly built, heavily armored, and was the first tank to include adequate protection for the soldiers within its walls.

In addition to eliminating anti-aircraft guns, this tank could effectively knock down steel bunkers and forts, something which earlier tanks could not accomplish. Although its purpose was well engineered, the tank’s ammunition proved to be a large problem for the soldiers operating it. The weighty shells were extremely difficult to lift and load, resulting in a mere two rounds per minute. Rather than abandoning the idea of a tank that could fight the highly advanced German weaponry, the Soviets worked throughout the war to make necessary changes to the earlier T-10. The later 1944 edition was lighter, better equipped, and included ammunition that did not require numerous soldiers to lift. Helping Soviet soldiers to protect themselves against German troops, the T-10 proved to be a useful piece of machinery, begging the question – what’s in a name?

Big Bertha

Almost certainly evoking cries of woe from every woman blessed with the name “Bertha,” this enormous 1,350 ton gun was a great adaptation of the earlier Howitzer’s. The shells alone weighed a massive 1,807 pounds each and the gun could reach up to 8 miles away, nearly eliminating anything in its path. One of the great improvements from the earlier Howitzer was the type of platforms the Big Bertha could be mounted on. This newer version could tilt up to eighty degrees in either direction, making it a very effective tool. The addition of either wheels or a railway cart gave the Big Bertha much needed speed.

The Big Bertha was designed in 1904 by the Krupps factory located in Essen, Germany. The factory only produced six of these machines primarily used to destroy forts in both Belgium and Northern France, but the gun was very effective in nearly any situation. Also, much like the earlier Howitzer’s, the mere sight of a Big Bertha wheeling up to enemy trenches would cause them to surrender on the spot. Resistance against this large, metallic beast seemed futile. However, with innovations in warfare technology, Germany had no more use for the Big Bertha after realizing that even this fear instilling monstrosity had little effect on newer, steel enforced forts. With technology quickly advancing throughout the war, the Big Bertha played a large part for Germany in successfully defeating large portions of Belgium and Northern France, but was quickly abandoned before World War I had ended.

The Howitzer

Bulky by today’s standards, the Howitzer, which was first designed at the end of the 17th century, gave those countries that decided to use it an upper hand during World War I. These economical instruments were less stable when they were firing, which meant that less gun powder had to be used in order to operate the gun. In turn, countries using the Howitzer’s spent less money on gun powder and more money invest in buying or manufacturing the guns. Less gun powder also meant that soldiers wouldn’t have to carry around any additional weight – the gun itself already weighed around 200 tons. At a great inconvenience to the men that handled it, the Howitzer had to be wheeled it its destination, mounted at an angle, and aimed downwards in order to shoot. Surprisingly, all of this bulk gave great advantage to the Germans, who perfected the weapon, during the war.

World War I saw the large usage of trenches as a form of protection for troops stationed within them. These large, dug holes were surrounded by slight barrier walls that made a perfect stands for cradling the barrel of a rifle. Trench warfare was extremely popular during both World Wars, and countries often flocked to the trench in order to provide what seemed like the best protection from most of the guns that fired in straight line. Unfortunately for the men protected by the trench wall, the Howitzer did not fire in a straight line. “Fire in the hole!” is likely what the men waiting in the trenches were thinking when they caught a glimpse of a Howitzer’s nose. Once this massive hunk of metal was seen, trench troops had no hope of survival. Often they surrendered simply upon sight of the Howitzer.

Throughout the war, the Howitzer was updated and engineers sought to fashion the instrument in order to more closely resemble a gun. Their main goal was to make the Howitzer lighter, more agile, and easier to use. Towards the end of the war, this weapon had begun to resemble a regular gun, with the added features of a longer barrel (which meant a longer range shot), and various types of platforms that it could be carried upon.

The Zepplin

Seemingly harmless, the German Zeppelin was built during the early 20th century by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, and was originally designed to be a passenger plane. The first Zeppelin was square shaped and did not last more than eighteen minutes in flight before it came crashing down to earth. This large blimp was slightly difficult to navigate, rudders and elevator fins had to be constantly adjusted in order to make the plane fly on course. Over time during the 1920’s, the Zeppelin was adapted and turned out to be a better cargo plane than passenger plane. With its metal alloy skeleton and large but cramped space towards the bottom of the plane, the Zeppelin was able to stack more cargo than passengers in its base. In order to ensure a safe flight, crew or cargo often filled out the bottom of the airplane for stability reasons alone, since this large airborne craft was less than agile.

During World War I, the German army no longer viewed the Zeppelin as a passenger or cargo plane. Recognizing a great opportunity to use the air-borne monsters for viewing ground activity from a distance, as well as using the planes to drop bombs on unsuspecting towns, the Zeppelin suddenly became a looming threat. Only able to fly via an outer shell that contained numerous hydrogen filled “balloons,” the Zeppelin turned out to be an inadequate war time airplane and became highly susceptible to gun fire. Eighty-eight Zeppelins were built during World War I, and sixty of them were lost – most likely being shot out of the sky and falling to the earth in a dusty explosion.